Morus alba

White mulberry was introduced to the U.S. during colonial times for the purpose of establishing a silkworm industry.

General: Mulberry family (Moreaceae). White mulberry is an introduced, small to medium sized shrub or tree. The leaves are alternate, simple, serrate or dentate, ovate to broad ovate, and two to seven inches long (Dirr 1990). The flowers are small, greenish, crowded in clusters, and hanging in catkins. The fruit is blackberry like, typically white but sometimes pinkish violet, insipid and so plentiful it litters lawns and pavements (Taylor 1965). The bark is light brown to gray and smooth, becoming divided into narrow scaly ridges.

Distribution: Morus alba is a Chinese tree, cultivated throughout the world wherever silkworms are raised. It is occasionally cultivated in Japan, Europe, North America, and Africa. In Michigan, white mulberry is frequent in urban environments in the southern half of the Lower Peninsula, occasionally in the northern half of the Lower Peninsula and the Upper Peninsula (Barnes & Wagner 1981). This species is naturalized in the urban environment and rare in disturbed forest communities (Ibid.). For current distribution, please consult the Plant profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

"Notes: Cultivated, Native of Saharo-Sindian Region"

This introduced tree is 30-60' tall, forming a short trunk that is often crooked and a globoid crown with abundant branches. The trunk of large trees 1–2½' across. Trunk bark is usually grayish brown with flattened ridges and shallow vertical furrows; on very old trees, the bark becomes gray and coarse with curving deep furrows. The bark of branches and twigs is brown and relatively smooth; small white lenticels are visible on smaller branches and twigs. New leafy shoots are light green and often pubescent. Alternate leaves are 2–6" long and 1½–3½" across; the leaf blades are ovate in form or outline, and they are either irregularly lobed or lacking lobes. When lobes are present, they vary in number from 1-7 and divide the blade moderately to deeply. The tips of the lobes are usually well-rounded, rather than pointed. The margins are crenate to serrate. The upper surfaces of the leaf blades are light to medium green, glabrous, and shiny, while their lower surfaces are pale green and mostly hairless, except for some fine hairs along the major veins or in the axils of major veins. The slender petioles are ½–1½" long and light green. At the base of each petiole, there is a pair of linear-lanceolate stipules about ¼" long that soon wither away. Both the leaves and young shoots contain a white latex that is mildly toxic. Individual trees are usually dioecious, producing either all male (staminate) florets or all female (pistillate) florets in the form of drooping catkins. Less often, White Mulberry is monoecious, producing both male and female florets on the same tree. These catkins are produced from the axils of the leaves on short peduncles. Male catkins are 1–1½" long, whitish or yellowish green, and cylindrical in shape from the arrangement of abundant florets. Individual male florets are ¼" long, consisting of a tiny green calyx with 4 lobes, 4 stamens, and no petals. The stamens are bent downward during the bud stage, but straighten abruptly as the florets begin to open to fling their pollen by mechanical ejection. Greenish female catkins are ½–¾" long and cylindrical in shape from the arrangement of abundant florets. Individual female florets are ¼" long, consisting of a tiny green calyx with 4 lobes and a green ovary with a pair of tiny diverging styles. The blooming period occurs from mid- to late spring and the florets are wind-pollinated. After about a month, the female catkins transform into ripened compound drupes about ½–1¼" long. Depending on the variety or cultivar, mature drupes can be white, pink, red, or black. Each drupe consists of a cylindrical cluster of fleshy drupelets that are sweet and bland in flavor. Each drupelet contains a single seed. The root system is relatively shallow, woody, and branching. This tree reproduces by reseeding itself. Cultivation

Because of the variable number of lobes (0-7), the leaves of White Mulberry can be highly variable in appearance, even on the same branch of a single tree. There is a tendency for shaded trees to produce leaves with fewer lobes than trees growing in sunny situations. White Mulberry is also highly variable in the color of its mature drupes, which can be white, pink, red, or black. Some authors distinguish between Morus alba alba (White Mulberry), which has white to pink mature drupes, and Morus alba tartarica (Russian Mulberry), which has red to black mature drupes. The latter variety is supposed to have a smaller, more shrubby habit than the former. The native species, Morus rubra (Red Mulberry), is very similar to the introduced species and can hybridize with it. Red Mulberry is a woodland tree with more shade tolerance and somewhat larger leaves than White Mulberry. The upper leaf surface of Red Mulberry is usually rough-textured, while its lower leaf surface is often slightly pubescent between the veins. In contrast, the upper leaf surface of White Mulberry is smooth, while its lower leaf surface is hairless between the veins. Red Mulberry tends to have fewer lobes per leaf (0-3) than White Mulberry, although significant overlap occurs in this trait between these two species. Like Morus alba tartarica (Russian Mulberry), Red Mulberry has mature drupes that are red or black, although they tend to be slightly longer than those of Russian Mulberry.

Chinese white mulberry, common mulberry, Russian mulberry, silkworm mulberry, chi sang, chin sang, moral blanco

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Global Distribution

Afghanistan and North West Asia

Indian distribution

State - Kerala, District/s: All Districts

"

"Maharashtra: Dhule, Kolhapur, Pune, Satara, Thane Karnataka: Chikmagalur, Hassan, Mysore, N. Kanara, Shimoga Kerala: All districts Tamil Nadu: All districts"

White mulberry is native to China [23,110,168] and was introduced to North America in the 1600s (reviews by [18,33]). In 1624 the legislature of Virginia required every male resident to plant at least 4 white mulberry trees to promote a North American silk industry. By the 1830s, the potential for a silk industry prompted a horticultural phenomenon known as "mulberry mania" in the eastern United States. In the late 1830s, white mulberry plantations in the Northeast were killed by cold winters and those in the South were killed by disease, halting the planting of white mulberry. However, white mulberry seeds were imported from Europe in the 1860s to promote a silk industry in Utah (review by [106]).

White mulberry has established outside of cultivation in many areas [11,25,56,57,96,105,110,122,148,168,173,179,180]. As of this writing (2009), white mulberry is widely distributed across North America, occurring across all of the United States with the exceptions of Nevada and Alaska. In Canada, it is found in British Columbia, Ontario, and Quebec. Plants Database provides a distribution map of white mulberry.

White Mulberry is a common tree that has been found throughout Illinois (see Distribution Map); it probably occurs in every county. This tree is especially abundant in urban areas. It was introduced from Asia as a food plant for the Chinese Silkworm (Bombyx mori) during the 19th century. Habitats include disturbed open woodlands, savannas and thickets, woodland borders, fence rows, powerline clearances in wooded areas, river banks, vacant lots, and unmowed waste areas. Sometimes White Mulberry is cultivated as a landscape tree, although this is less common than in the past.

White mulberry is widespread in the U.S., occurring in every state of the lower 48 except for Nevada. It invades old fields, urban lots, roadsides, forest edges, and other disturbed areas.

China

Morus alba var. tatarica (L.) Ser.:
Honduras (Mesoamerica)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Morus alba L.:
Argentina (South America)
Bolivia (South America)
Brazil (South America)
Canada (North America)
China (Asia)
Colombia (South America)
Ecuador (South America)
Guatemala (Mesoamerica)
Honduras (Mesoamerica)
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
Peru (South America)
United States (North America)
Venezuela (South America)
South Africa (Africa & Madagascar)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

introduced; Ont.; Ala., Ark., Colo., Conn., Del., D.C., Fla., Ga., Ill., Ind., Iowa, Kans., Ky., La., Maine, Md., Mass., Mich., Minn., Miss., Mo., Nebr., N.H., N.J., N.Y., N.C., Ohio, Okla., Pa., R.I., S.C., S.Dak., Tenn., Tex., Vt., Va., W.Va., Wis.; Europe; native to e Asia.

Canada

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

Distribution: Native of China and probably in temperate Asia, now widely distributed in Japan, China, Malaya, Burma, Indo-Pak. Subcontinent westwards to N. Africa, South & Central Europe; introduced in the New world.

White mulberry grows well on a wide variety of soils. It prefers a warm, moist, well-drained loamy soil in a sunny position. It withstands drought once well established. Morus alba is quite salt tolerant. This species is also fairly wind-resistant.

More info for the terms: dioecious, monoecious, root crown, shrub, tree

Botanical description: This description covers characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [11,25,44,56,57,60,105,122,148,173]).

Aboveground description: White mulberry grows as a dense, round-topped, perennial shrub or tree (review by [33]), reaching heights around 50 feet (15 m) [44]. The thin bark is shallowly furrowed and has long, narrow ridges [44]. White mulberry leaves are alternate, simple, ovate, 2 to 4 inches (6-10 cm) long and 1 to 2 inches (3-6 cm) wide, with margins varying from coarsely serrate to deeply lobed and serrate. Leaves exude a milky juice when broken. Staminate and pistillate flowers develop in separate catkins [143]. Plants are typically dioecious [18,48] and occasionally monoecious [21]. White mulberry fruits are cylindrical drupes, 0.5 to 1.0 inches (1.5-2.5 cm) long. Fruits may be black, purple, or white. The ovoid nutlet has a thin, soft shell [143], and the seed has a "hard bony coat" [85].

White mulberry fruit.

Belowground description: White mulberry has a wide, spreading root system ([41,138,143], review by [30]), with both a tap root and lateral roots [138]. Roots are large in diameter close to the root crown but decrease rapidly in size, branching within a few feet of the root crown into numerous fibrous roots [17]. Roots of a 21-year-old white mulberry penetrated approximately 7 feet (2 m) deep and had a 22-foot (7 m) lateral spread in silty clay loam soil in eastern Nebraska [138]. In Oklahoma, 5 planted white mulberry trees penetrated to a depth of 13 feet (4 m) in a deep silt loam. The longest lateral root extension was 42 feet (13 m). Most lateral roots occurred in the upper 1 to 3 feet (0.3-1 m) of soil, and no lateral roots occurred below 5 feet (2 m); average lateral root spread was calculated at 190 to 330 ft² [17].

Life span: White mulberry trees may have a long life span; at Mt. Vernon, a white mulberry planted by George Washington in 1785 was alive as of 1990 (review by [106]). There are records of 150-year-old white mulberry trees in Greece (review by [86]) and a 120-year-old planted white mulberry tree in Utah (review by [106]).

• Botanical description
• RAUNKIAER LIFE FORM

• Plant: deciduous tree, 30-50 ft. tall; young bark, inner bark and bark along the roots is bright orange; older bark is grey with narrow irregular fissures; bark splits easily; stems are glabrous to pubescent, not thorny.
• Leaves: alternate, simple, glossy above, toothed, unlobed or lobed with one or many, sometimes deep lobes; upper leaf surface glossy, glabrous or slightly scabrous; lower leaf surface glabrous, or slightly pubescent on the veins and in the vein axils only.
• Flowers, fruits and seeds: flowers are produced in Spring; male and female flowers are on separate plants; male flowers are small, green and occur in 1-2 in. long catkins; female flowers are inconspicuous and crowded in short spikes; fruits form from female flowers; fruits are multiple-seeded berries that range in color from black to pink to white when ripe; contain abundant seed--a single tree is estimated to produce twenty million seeds!
• Spreads: by seed which is consumed by wildlife and deposited in new locations.
• Look-alikes: may be confused with native red mulberry (Morus rubra) which has larger leaves that are dull and rough; basswood (Tilia sp.) with unlobed leaves and flowers and fruits on leaf-like bracts; sassafras (Sassafras albidum) with smooth-margined lobed to unlobed leaves; and paper mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifera) with leaves densely gray-pubescent.

A monoedous, deciduous, 8-15 m or rarely up to 20 m tall tree with a dense, compact leafy crown. Trunk c.1.5-2 m in circumference, with dark grey-brown, rough, vertically fissured bark, tender twigs hairy to glabrescent. Leaves. with a crisped hairy, filiform,1-3 (-3.5) cm long petiole; lamina narrow to broad. ovate, (2.5-) 5-15 cm long, (2.5-) 4-12 cm wide, 3-costate from truncate to shallowly cordate base, upper surface glabrous, midrib and principal wins pubescent, secondary veins and ultimate veinlets glabrous, margin regularly serrate or crenate-serrate or ± irregularly 2-serrate, apex obtuse, acute or shortly acuminate; stipules lanceolate, brownish membranous, hairy. Male catkins 10-20 (-30) mm long including slender, hairy peduncle, c. 5.6 mm broad, with lax flowers. Male flowers: sepals free, broadly ovate, c. 2.5 mm long, cucullate, obtuse, glabrous to ± hairy; staminal filaments ± equal to sepals, with ovate, exserted anthers. Female catkins ovoid, (2) 5-10 (-12) mm long, with out equally long or slightly longer peduncle. Female flowers: sepals suborbicular, c. as long as or slightly larger than of male flowers, glabrous or ± ciliate on margins; ovary with glabrous free styles. Sorosis ovoid, (10-) 15-25 mm long, 5-8 mm across, white to pinkish-purple or black, sweet, edible.

Shrubs or trees, 3-10 m tall. Bark gray, shallowly furrowed. Branches finely hairy. Winter buds reddish brown, ovoid, finely hairy. Stipules lanceolate, 2-3.5 cm, densely covered with short pubescence. Petiole 1.5-5.5 cm, pubescent; leaf blade ovate to broadly ovate, irregularly lobed, 5-30 × 5-12 cm, abaxially sparsely pubescent along midvein or in tufts in axil of midvein and primary lateral veins, adaxially bright green and glabrous, base rounded to ± cordate, margin coarsely serrate to crenate, apex acute, acuminate, or obtuse. Male catkins pendulous, 2-3.5 cm, densely white hairy. Female catkins 1-2 cm, pubescent; peduncle 5-10 mm, pubescent. Male flowers: calyx lobes pale green, broadly elliptic; filaments inflexed in bud; anthers 2-loculed, globose to reniform. Female flowers: sessile; calyx lobes ovoid, ± compressed, with marginal hairs; ovary sessile, ovoid; style absent; stigmas with mastoidlike protuberance, branches divergent, papillose. Syncarp red when immature, blackish purple, purple, or greenish white when mature, ovoid, ellipsoid, or cylindric, 1-2.5 cm. Fl. Apr-May, fr. May-Aug.

Shrubs or trees , to 15 m. Bark brown tinged with red or yellow, thin, shallowly furrowed, with long, narrow ridges. Branchlets orange-brown or dark green with reddish cast, pubescent or occasionally glabrous; lenticels reddish brown, elliptic, prominent. Buds ovoid, 4-6 mm, apex acute to rounded; outer scales yellow-brown with dark margins, glabrous or with a few marginal trichomes; leaf scars half round, bundle scars numerous, in circle. Leaves: stipules ovate to lanceolate, 5-9 mm, pubescent; petiole 2.5-5 cm, short-pubescent. Leaf blade ovate, often deeply and irregularly lobed, (6-)8-10 × 3-6 cm, base cuneate, truncate, or cordate, margins coarsely serrate to crenate, apex acute to short-acuminate; surfaces abaxially glabrous or sparingly pubescent along major veins or in tufts in axils of principal lateral veins and midribs, adaxially glabrous to sparsely pubescent. Catkins: peduncle and axis pubescent; staminate catkins 2.5-4 cm; pistillate catkins 5-8 mm. Flowers: staminate and pistillate on same or different plants. Staminate flowers: sepals distinct, green with red tip, ca. 1.5 mm, pubescent; filaments ca. 2.7 mm. Pistillate flowers: ovary green, ovoid, slightly compressed, ca. 2 mm, glabrous; style branches divergent, red-brown, 0.5-1 mm; stigma papillose. Syncarps red when immature, becoming black, purple, or nearly white, cylindric, 1.5-2.5 × 1 cm; achenes light brown, ovoid, 2-3 mm.

"A deciduous, 8-15 m or rarely up to 20 m tall tree with a dense, compact leafy crown. Trunk with dark grey-brown, rough, vertically fissured bark, tender twigs hairy to glabrescent. Leaves with a crisped hairy, filiform,1-3 (-3.5) cm long petiole. Lamina narrow to broad, ovate, 3-costate from truncate to shallowly cordate base, upper surface glabrous, midrib and principal wins pubescent, secondary veins and ultimate veinlets glabrous, margin regularly serrate or crenate-serrate or irregularly 2-serrate, apex obtuse, acute or shortly acuminate; stipules lanceolate, brownish membranous and hairy. Male catkins 10-20 (-30) mm long including slender, hairy peduncle, with lax flowers. Male flowers: Sepals free, broadly ovate, c. 2.5 mm long, cucullate, obtuse, glabrous to hairy; staminal filaments equal to sepals, with ovate, exserted anthers. Female catkins ovoid, (2) 5-10 (-12) mm long, with out equally long or slightly longer peduncle. Female flowers: Sepals suborbicular, c. as long as or slightly larger than of male flowers, glabrous or ciliate on margins; ovary with glabrous free styles. Sorosis ovoid, 5-8 mm across, white to pinkish-purple or black, sweet and edible."

Morus alba var. tatarica (Linnaeus) Seringe; M . Tatarica Linnaeus

General site types: White mulberry establishes in a variety of site types, including largely native plant communities, as well as many sites associated with human disturbance. It commonly establishes in the understory of floodplain [3,35,47,52,60,65,72,82,98,142,144,152,170,178] or riparian [26,36,53,73,79,91,92,94,99,126,130,145,164,167,178] plant communities. Floras report white mulberry occurring in wooded areas [60], "woods" [168], forest or woodland edges ([41,44,153]), dry to moist thickets [44], low stream banks, drained woods [147], or prairie hills [143].

White mulberry establishes in disturbed [44,179,180], ruderal [25,28], and "waste" areas ([41,96,177], review by [30]), including areas along roadsides ([53,60,96,153,156], review by [30]), railroad tracks [108,168], levees [156], and near dwellings [122], and in vacant lots [168], pastures ([122,158], review by [30]), fields [45,153,168], fencerows ([28,41,44,60], review by [30]), hedgerows [144,168], or windbreaks [122].

Climate: Given the wide geographic range of white mulberry, climate does not seem to particularly restrict its establishment. White mulberry occurs in areas with subtropical humid climates like southeastern Alabama, with long hot summers and short, mild winters [132]. It also occurs in the semiarid and continental climate of eastern Colorado, with high daily and annual temperature ranges, high potential evapotranspiration rates, and strong winds [79]. White mulberry tolerates the cold temperatures of Massachusetts, where average January temperatures are 23 °F (-5 °C) and average July temperatures are 68 °F (20 °C) [7], as well as the warm temperatures of locations like northern Alabama where average January temperatures are 45.5 °F (7.5 °C) and average July temperatures are 80.1 °F (26.7 °C) [10]. However, reports from northwestern Oklahoma indicate the tips of branches are susceptible to freezing [64], and cold winters in the Northeast killed white mulberry plantations in the 1830s (review by [106]).

White mulberry tolerates a wide range of annual precipitation, occurring in areas where reported average annual precipitation ranges from 11 inches (286 mm) in central Arizona [178] to 60 inches (1,400 mm) in northern Alabama [10].

Reported average annual precipitation for locations where white mulberry occurs in the United States Location Average annual precipitation (mm)* Northern Alabama 1,270-1,400 [10] Central Arizona 286 [178] Eastern Colorado 470 [79]** Southwestern Indiana 1,140 [117] South-central Kansas 760 [119] Southeastern Kentucky 1,170 [133] Massachusetts 1,190 [7]** Southwestern Michigan 860 [45] West-central Ohio 945 [76] Northeastern Oklahoma 1,045 [54] West-central Oklahoma 760 [93] Southeastern Washington 330 [92]

*Values are for annual precipitation unless otherwise noted
**Annual rainfall

Elevation: In North America, white mulberry occurs from 0 to 5,000 feet (0-1,500 m) [44]. It does not appear to be restricted to particular elevations and may occur at high elevations outside North America.

Reported elevation of sites with white mulberry Location Elevation (feet) Central Arizona 2,000 [178] Grand Canyon area of northern Arizona 3,100 [145] Southwestern Indiana 434 [117] Southeastern Kentucky 801-1,610 [133] Massachusetts 300-1,000 [7] Central Missouri 540 [35] North-central Tennessee 350-380 [75] Northern Pakistan 8,500 [116]

Soil: White mulberry occurs on a variety of soil types. One review states that white mulberry prefers rich loamy soil [141]. It establishes on silt loam in southwestern Indiana [117], central Ohio [36], and northwestern Tennessee [22], clay loam in central Missouri [35], and sandy loam in southwestern Michigan [45] and central New Jersey [47]. In northwestern Oklahoma white mulberry tolerates both sandy and loamy soil textures [64]. It is associated with sandy soil in Kansas [82,119], northeastern Oklahoma [54], coastal Louisiana [39], and southeastern New York [90].

A manual to woody landscaping plants reports that white mulberry grows best in fertile soils [33], though one review states that it tolerates poor soils [30]. White mulberry occurred on nutrient-rich soils in southeastern New York [90].

White mulberry is adapted to a range of soil pH (review by [33]). It was found on neutral soils in both northern Alabama [10] and southeastern New York, but was not found on acidic soils in southeastern New York [90]. In north-central Texas, white mulberry established in limestone areas [32].

A manual to woody landscaping plants states that white mulberry grows best in moist, well-drained soils [33], though it has established in both well-drained ([16,36,39], review by [141]) and poorly drained soils [39].

White Mulberry is a common tree that has been found throughout Illinois (see Distribution Map); it probably occurs in every county. This tree is especially abundant in urban areas. It was introduced from Asia as a food plant for the Chinese Silkworm (Bombyx mori) during the 19th century. Habitats include disturbed open woodlands, savannas and thickets, woodland borders, fence rows, powerline clearances in wooded areas, river banks, vacant lots, and unmowed waste areas. Sometimes White Mulberry is cultivated as a landscape tree, although this is less common than in the past.

Disturbed areas, woodland margins, fencerows, dry to moist thickets; 0-1500m.

* Originally endemic to C and N China, now cultivated throughout China [widely cultivated throughout the world].

Propagation from Seed: Sow the seeds as soon as they are ripe in a cold frame. Germination of fresh seed may vary because some seed will contain dormant embryos and impermeable seed coats (Dirr & Heuser 1987). Germination is improved by cold stratification at 33 to 41ºF for one to three months (Ibid.). After germination, the seeds require half shade for a few weeks.

Propagation from Cuttings: Cutting are taken from bushes at pruning time. The branches are cut twenty-two to thirty centimeters long with three buds and planted immediately. June and July are optimum months for rooting (Dirr & Heuser). The cuttings are buried in soil about six to nine centimeters deep and watered frequently. After about a month when the buds have shoots, they are taken out and planted. Mid July cuttings with bases are dipped in 8000 ppm IBA-talc and sand, that roots in three weeks with heavy root systems (Ibid).

As already mentioned, White Mulberry is the food plant of the moth Bombyx mori (Chinese Silkworm), which eats the leaves. This moth has been thoroughly domesticated and does not exist in the wild. The larvae of several Long-Horned beetles (Cerambycidae) bore through the wood of White Mulberry and other mulberry trees, specifically

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / saprobe
pycnidium of Camarosporium coelomycetous anamorph of Camarosporium mori is saprobic on dead wood of Morus alba

Foodplant / saprobe
small, covered, then erumpent stroma of Cytospora coelomycetous anamorph of Cytospora atra is saprobic on dead, dry branch of Morus alba

Foodplant / spot causer
pseudothecium of Mycosphaerella mori causes spots on leaf of Morus alba
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent stroma of Nectria coccinea is saprobic on dead branch of Morus alba
Remarks: season: 9-5

Foodplant / feeds on
pycnidium of Phoma coelomycetous anamorph of Phoma mororum feeds on Morus alba

More info for the terms: fire suppression, prescribed fire, restoration, wildfire

Preventing postfire establishment and spread: While there is little documented information regarding the postfire establishment and spread of white mulberry (2009), the potential for vegetative regeneration from stumps [150] and roots (reviews by [21,136]), and the documentation of white mulberry sprouting 3 years following wildfire in New Mexico [161], suggest that managers should monitor top-killed white mulberry plants for any signs of regeneration. White mulberry seeds may survive in the soil seed bank or be dispersed from off-site sources, though it is not clear whether postfire conditions are conducive to white mulberry seed germination and seedling establishment (see Fire adaptations).

Preventing invasive plants from establishing in weed-free burned areas is the most effective and least costly management method. This may be accomplished through early detection and eradication, careful monitoring and follow-up, and limiting dispersal of invasive plant seed into burned areas. General recommendations for preventing postfire establishment and spread of invasive plants include:

• Incorporate cost of weed prevention and management into fire rehabilitation plans
• Acquire restoration funding
• Include weed prevention education in fire training
• Minimize soil disturbance and vegetation removal during fire suppression and rehabilitation activities
• Minimize the use of retardants that may alter soil nutrient availability, such as those containing nitrogen and phosphorus
• Avoid areas dominated by high priority invasive plants when locating firelines, monitoring camps, staging areas, and helibases
• Clean equipment and vehicles prior to entering burned areas
• Regulate or prevent human and livestock entry into burned areas until desirable site vegetation has recovered sufficiently to resist invasion by undesirable vegetation
• Monitor burned areas and areas of significant disturbance or traffic from management activity
• Detect weeds early and eradicate before vegetative spread and/or seed dispersal
• Eradicate small patches and contain or control large infestations within or adjacent to the burned area
• Reestablish vegetation on bare ground as soon as possible
• Avoid use of fertilizers in postfire rehabilitation and restoration
• Use only certified weed-free seed mixes when revegetation is necessary

For more detailed information on these topics see the following publications: [4,14,58,162].

Use of prescribed fire as a control agent: As of this writing (2009) there were no studies documenting the use of prescribed fire to control white mulberry. Control may be limited by the potential of white mulberry to sprout from the stump [150] or roots (reviews by [21,136]). One review suggests that white mulberry roots will continue to produce sprouts even if the plant is cut back every year [21], suggesting that repeated fires or integrated treatments may be needed to control mature white mulberry.

More info for the terms: fire exclusion, fire regime, fuel, hardwood

Fuels: As of 2009, no studies specifically addressed fuel characteristics of white mulberry. An ornamental white mulberry in Bakersfield, California, had a projected leaf mass per area of crown of 990 g/m² [77].

Where white mulberry occurs within the range of red mulberry and exhibits growth patterns similar to those of red mulberry, it is unlikely that local fuel characteristics would be altered. Fuel characteristics could potentially be altered in areas where white mulberry establishes in densities and/or growth patterns differing from those of native vegetation, such as where it develops in dense thickets (e.g., see [120]). It is also possible that white mulberry alters fuel characteristics in areas where post-settlement fire exclusion facilitated the establishment of woody species like white mulberry, as was documented in riparian forests in south-central Nebraska [130] and upland areas adjacent to hardwood gallery forests in the northern Great Plains [81].

FIRE REGIMES: It is not known what type of fire regime white mulberry is best adapted to. The current North American distribution of white mulberry includes ecosystems that historically experienced both frequent and infrequent fires of various severities. The impact of white mulberry on these FIRE REGIMES is largely unknown. One study suggests that fire exclusion in hardwood gallery forests in the northern Great Plains has facilitated spread of plants like white mulberry out of riparian corridors and into adjacent upland areas with historically high fire frequencies [81].

See the Fire Regime Table for further information on FIRE REGIMES of vegetation communities in which white mulberry may occur.

More info on this topic.

More info for the terms: cover, hardwood, natural

White mulberry is not restricted to any particular successional stage, occurring in early [45,54,103,112], mid-successional [9,47,89,115,117,121,175], and mature [169,171] plant communities. In some instances, white mulberry established secondarily after other woody species established and provided perches for seed-dispersing birds [45,102,103].

Light: White mulberry tolerates both open and shady conditions. A review states that it cannot grow in shade [30], and a manual to woody landscaping plants reports that it tolerates full sun to light shade [33]. In Ontario, white mulberry was generally found in more open conditions than the native red mulberry [18]. White mulberry seedlings grown in experimental field plots in Nebraska had a 53% higher growth rate when grown in sun compared to shade [100].

Though white mulberry may grow better in open conditions, it is commonly found in low-light areas such as canyon bottoms in west-central Oklahoma [93], lowland forests in southern Illinois [104], and old-growth oak-hickory forests in Indiana [171]. White mulberry seedlings established under the cover of planted pine groves in northeastern Kansas [50], eastern cottonwood in New York [103], and staghorn sumac in southwestern Michigan [45].

Disturbance: There is some evidence that disturbance is conducive to white mulberry establishment, though not in all cases.

Natural disturbance: In southeastern Iowa, white mulberry occurred in silver maple-eastern cottonwood floodplain plant communities, though only in gaps created by dead elms [98]. In contrast, in north-central Virginia, white mulberry had not established in debris avalanche areas 10 years after the disturbance, but was present in nearby reference mixed-hardwood forest [70]. Near Bronx, New York, white mulberry occurred as a relatively common species along edges and in gaps of both black locust and oak-maple plant communities [182]. In north-central Ohio, white mulberry was found in second-growth but not old-growth hardwood forests [175]. White mulberry also established in disturbed forests in Wisconsin [29] and Ontario [37], though no mechanism of disturbance was reported.

White mulberry occurs in many floodplain or riparian forests prone to flooding [6,16,26,35,36,47,61,75,109]. In central Ohio, white mulberry occurred in riparian bottomland forests experiencing groundwater flooding 1 to several times per year [36]. In central Missouri, white mulberry occurred on floodplain oak-hickory forests where inundation could last as long as 1 week [35]. In streamside forests in central Illinois, white mulberry occurred only at those elevational gradients experiencing flooding in 13% to 25% of years but was not present in areas experiencing more frequent flooding [6].

White mulberry is drought tolerant ([17,64,138], reviews by [30,33]), which may be attributed to its well-developed root system [138]. In the southern high plains of Oklahoma, 32.8% of planted white mulberry survived 7 years of drought [17].

Anthropogenic disturbance: In extreme southern Illinois, white mulberry established following salvage-logging after a tornado in a bottomland hardwood forest. It was not found in undisturbed forest or tornado-impacted areas without salvage logging [114]. In central Arizona, white mulberry was frequent on mesquite (Prosopis sp.) terraces characterized as "severely disturbed" following mesquite removal [178]. In southeastern Louisiana, white mulberry established on elevated spoil banks within the bottomland hardwood forest plant community [170]. White mulberry occurred at low levels on a 15- to 20-year-old revegetating lead and zinc mine spoil site in northeastern Oklahoma [54]. White mulberry established on 5- to 9-year-old revegetating landfill sites in South Korea [80]. White mulberry also established following old field abandonment in New Jersey [112] and southwestern Michigan [45].

Successional role: While 1 review suggests that white mulberry has the potential to exclude native vegetation [51], there is little documentation of this impact occurring. White mulberry would most likely alter successional trajectories where it develops in dense thickets, a relatively infrequent establishment pattern. However, on a dredge spoil island in South Carolina, white mulberry established in a thicket so dense that understory vegetation was suppressed [120].

More info for the terms: cover, natural

As of 2009, there was little published information regarding conditions conducive to the establishment of white mulberry. Though 1 review states that white mulberry cannot grow in shade (review by [30]), there are reports of white mulberry seedlings establishing under the cover of other vegetation [45,50,103]. In some areas, both natural [98,182] and anthropogenic [45,54,80,112,114,170,178] disturbances appear to favor the establishment of white mulberry, though not in all cases (e.g., see [70]). See Successional Status for additional information regarding white mulberry light preferences and response to disturbance.

Growth rate: A manual to woody landscaping plants reports that white mulberry has a fast growth rate, growing 10 to 12 feet (3-4 m) over a 4- to 6-year period (review by [33]).

White mulberry seedling.

More info for the term: cohort

Greenhouse experiments show variable germination rates, with germination generally improving with cold stratification ([85], review by [33]), and variable results after ingestion by wildlife [12,85]. Wild-collected white mulberry seeds showed high germination rates (92.3%) in greenhouse trials where seeds were exposed to indirect sunlight and fluctuating temperatures from June to October. Germination rates were lower (78.3%) for seeds that had been ingested by box turtles prior to germination trials [12]. Another study found that dormancy of white mulberry seeds varies; seeds from the same cohort may exhibit seed coat dormancy, embryonic dormancy, or both. Seeds exhibiting all 3 types of dormancy showed improved germination following both cold stratification and digestion by American robins. Seeds had germination rates of 45.8% when just digested by American robins and 68.8% when digestion by American robins was combined with 90-day cold stratification. In contrast, control seeds with no treatment had a germination rate of 34.0% while those only exposed to cold stratification had a germination rate of 55.2%. Scarification of control seeds with a 15-minute sulfuric acid treatment reduced germination rates [85].

A forestry handbook from India reports that white mulberry seeds take 35 days to germinate [111], though one review reports an expected germination rate of 73% to 84% 8 to 12 days following 60-day stratification in sand [141].

More info for the terms: density, presence, shrub

A forestry handbook from India lists white mulberry seeds as viable for 720 days [111]. Tests at a nursery in Nebraska found that, while white mulberry seeds remained viable for at least a year when stored in cool, sealed conditions, they deteriorated rapidly upon removal from storage [154].

White mulberry seeds have been found in soil samples even when mature plants are not present in extant vegetation, though the seeds were not always viable. White mulberry was absent from aboveground vegetation but present at low density in the soil seed bank in deciduous forests in Bronx, New York, with viable seeds occurring at a soil depth of 0 to 4 inches (0-10 cm) [84]. White mulberry seeds were detected in 32% of soil samples taken from a woodlot in southern Ontario in November, occurring in samples at a density of 334.8 seeds/m². These seeds were not viable in seedling emergence trials [15]. In west-central Iowa, white mulberry seeds were present in the seed bank in coniferous woodland, deciduous shrub, tallgrass prairie, and midgrass prairie plant communities. Neither the viability of these seeds nor white mulberry's presence in the aboveground vegetation were reported [127]. In southeastern Arizona, white mulberry was found in the soil seed bank of a riparian deciduous forest but was not found in extant vegetation [125].

More info for the terms: dioecious, monoecious

Pollination and breeding system: White mulberry is generally dioecious [18,48], though monoecious plants are occasionally found [21]. It is wind pollinated [181].

More info for the term: breeding system

• Pollination and breeding system
• Seed production
• Seed dispersal
• Seed banking
• Germination
• Seedling establishment and plant growth
• Vegetative regeneration

White mulberry reproduces by seed. Following injury, white mulberry may regenerate vegetatively via sprouting from the stump, roots, or cut stems, though this response is not widely documented.

More info on this topic.

More info for the term: phanerophyte

Raunkiaer [124] life form:
Phanerophyte

Follow this link to the U.S. Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service to see a table with fire regime information that may be relevant to habitats in which this species occurs

There is little evidence that white mulberry commonly regenerates vegetatively, though there are accounts of sprouting from stumps [150], roots (reviews by [21,136]), and cut stems buried in the soil (review by [30]). Stumps from 6-year-old plants of a white mulberry cultivar developed 5 to 8 sprouts that grew 16 to 20 inches (40-50 cm) in 1 year [150].

White mulberry fruits are eaten and dispersed by animals, including birds ([23,71,113,121,173], review by [30]), red foxes [83], northern raccoons, Virginia opossums, squirrels [71], and other mammals (review by [30]). Box turtles may disperse white mulberry seeds [12]. Many seeds fall near the base of the parent plant [32].

White mulberry reproduces by seed (review by [30]). In northeastern Kansas, white mulberry plants produced an average of 22.52 seeds/fruit, and fruits remained on plants an average of 3.1 days [140].

More info on this topic.

White mulberry generally flowers from April to May [32,49,60,105,119,177], with earlier flowering in March in the Carolinas [122], and later flowering into June in the upper Midwest (review by [30]). White mulberry fruits begin forming in May [60,119,122] and may continue developing into late July [140].

Flowering spring-summer.

Fl. Per.: April-September.

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 10
Specimens with Barcodes: 53
Species With Barcodes: 1

Information on state-level noxious weed status of plants in the United States is available at Plants Database.

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

Rounded Global Status Rank: GNR - Not Yet Ranked

Introduced into the U.S. and it is considered invasive by several sources. Please consult the Plants Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

More info for the terms: fire management, invasive species, natural, prescribed fire

Impacts:
Native vegetation: There is widespread concern over white mulberry's hybridization with the native red mulberry ([18,153,171,174], review by [30]). In Ontario, resulting hybrids were more similar to white mulberry parents, suggesting the potential for a local extinction of red mulberry [18]. In 1963, white mulberry was more common than red mulberry in southeastern Kansas [55]. There is also some concern in the mid-Atlantic region that white mulberry may transmit a harmful root disease to red mulberry [153].

Though it generally grows at relatively low densities, white mulberry has the potential to exclude native vegetation (review by [51]), particularly where it grows in dense thickets. However, as of this writing (2009) there was little published information documenting this impact. On a dredge spoil island in South Carolina, 95% of a 22.5 acre (9.1 ha) area was covered by a closed-canopy, even-aged stand of white mulberry. No understory was present [120]. White mulberry also established in thickets in limestone areas in north-central Texas [32], though no impact on native vegetation was reported.

White mulberry infestation.

White mulberry may have allelopathic properties; in laboratory experiments, white mulberry leaf leachate inhibited the germination of India mustard (Brassica juncea) [2].

Other impacts: Spreading white mulberry roots damaged pavement and curbs in San Francisco (review by [33]).

Control: In all cases where invasive species are targeted for control, no matter what method is employed, the potential for other invasive species to fill their void must be considered [14]. Control of biotic invasions is most effective when it employs a long-term, ecosystem-wide strategy rather than a tactical approach focused on battling individual invaders [95].

As of this writing (2009), very little information was available regarding control of white mulberry. The potential of white mulberry to sprout from the stump [150], roots (reviews by [21,136]), or from cut stems buried in the soil (review by [30]) may complicate control efforts. Information presented in the following sections may not be comprehensive and is not intended to be prescriptive in nature. It is intended to help managers understand the ecology and control of white mulberry in the context of fire management. For more detailed information on control of white mulberry, consult the references cited here or local extension services.

Fire: For information on the use of prescribed fire to control this species, see Fire Management Considerations.

Prevention: Because white mulberry is often planted as an ornamental, one way to prevent future white mulberry establishment is to avoid planting it. In the mid-Atlantic region, native alternatives to white mulberry include red maple, hackberry, black tupelo, or sassafras [153].

It is commonly argued that the most cost-efficient and effective method of managing invasive species is to prevent their establishment and spread by maintaining "healthy" natural communities [95,135] (e.g., avoid road building in wildlands [160]) and by monitoring several times each year [74]. Managing to maintain the integrity of the native plant community and mitigate the factors enhancing ecosystem invasibility is likely to be more effective than managing solely to control the invader [67].

Weed prevention and control can be incorporated into many types of management plans, including those for logging and site preparation, grazing allotments, recreation management, research projects, road building and maintenance, and fire management [162]. See the Guide to noxious weed prevention practices [162] for specific guidelines in preventing the spread of weed seeds and propagules under different management conditions.

Cultural control: No information is available on this topic (2009).

Physical or mechanical control: White mulberry seedlings may be controlled by pulling. For larger white mulberry plants, stems may be cut and the stump ground [153]. Girdling is also an option for larger trees ([153], review by [30]). Mechanical control may be limited by the potential of white mulberry to sprout from the stump [150], roots (reviews by [21,136]), or from cut stems buried in the soil (review by [30]). One review suggests that roots will continue to produce sprouts even if the plant is cut back every year [21].

Biological control: Biological control of invasive species has a long history that indicates many factors must be considered before using biological controls. Refer to these sources: [165,176] and the Weed control methods handbook [159] for background information and important considerations for developing and implementing biological control programs.

As of this writing (2009) there were no biological control programs identified for the control of white mulberry. White mulberry is susceptible to several diseases in North America (review by [137]). In the southern United States, white mulberry may be susceptible to popcorn disease caused by the fungus Ciboria carunculoides [59].

Goat browsing was used to suppress white mulberry in prairie remnants in northwest Illinois [8].

Chemical control: Herbicides are effective in gaining initial control of a new invasion or a severe infestation, but they are rarely a complete or long-term solution to weed management [19]. See the Weed control methods handbook [159] for considerations on the use of herbicides in natural areas and detailed information on specific chemicals.

No detailed information was found describing the use of herbicides to control white mulberry (as of 2009), though 1 review states that herbicides may effectively control white mulberry [30]. One handbook on invasive species in the mid-Atlantic region suggests controlling white mulberry by cutting stems and painting the stump with glyphosate [153].

Integrated management: No information is available on this topic (2009).

White mulberry seedlings can be pulled by hand. Otherwise, cut the tree and grind the stump or paint the cut surface with a systemic herbicide like glyphosate or girdle the tree.

These species are introduced in Switzerland.

‘Charparral’, ‘Pendula’, ‘Teas’, ‘Bellaire’, and ‘Lingan’ are some of the cultivars of Morus alba. ‘Charparral’ is fruitless, with a weeping form, reaching a height of twelve feet. ‘Pendula’ has a slender weeping form, reaching a height and spread of twenty feet. ‘Teas’ is grown for its edible fruit. ‘Bellaire’ has a distinctive form and multiple trunk (Dirr 1990), ‘Lingan’ is a type with leathery, lustrous foliage. It is fruitless, fast growing, and drought resistant (Ibid.).

Consult your local nurseries to choose the right cultivar for your specific landscape.

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method. Trade names and control measures appear in this document only to provide specific information. USDA NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and control methods named, and other products may be equally effective.

Mulberries have brittle roots and need to be handled with care when being planted. Pruning should be done in the winter when the plant is fully dormant. Only badly placed branches or dead wood should be removed during pruning. Mulberries are bleeders and should not be cut when the sap is flowing.

Different mulberry trees vary in fruit production. Sericulture is the most important commercial use for white mulberry. Young, fully developed leaves are best for feeding silkworm larvae. White mulberry can become weed trees as fruits are distributed by birds and other wildlife (Dirr 1997).

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, state natural resource, or state agriculture department regarding its status and use. Weed information is also available from the PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov. Please consult the Related Web Sites on the Plant Profile for this species for further information.

Ethnobotanic: The fruits may be eaten cooked or raw and are made into jellies, jams, pies and is added to bread, cookies, or puddings. The fruit is also an ingredient in mulberry wine and is used as a raisin substitute. The inner bark was roasted and grounded into a meal and then used as a thickener in soups or mixed with cereals when making bread. The young shoots were used as a tea substitute

Economic: White mulberry was introduced along the Atlantic seaboard during colonial times when an attempt was made to establish the silkworm industry in this country (Harrar & Harrar 1962). A fiber was obtained from the bark and used in weaving. A brown dye can be obtained from the trunk.

The wood is valued for sporting goods due to its durability, flexibility, and elasticity. It is used mainly for tennis and badminton rackets, hockey sticks, furniture, agricultural implements, and house and boat building materials. The stem is fibrous and is used in Europe and China for making paper.

Medicinal: The leaves are taken internally in the treatment of sore throats, colds, eye infections, and nose bleeds. The stems are used in the treatment of spasms, rheumatic pains, and high blood pressure. The fruit is used in the treatment of urinary incontinence, dizziness, diabetes, pre-maturing gray hair, and constipation in the elderly.

Wildlife: White mulberry leaves are eaten as a vegetable and are useful as a cattle fodder. Wild birds, hogs, and poultry eat the mulberry fruit.

Agroforestry: Morus alba is used in tree strips for windbreaks. They are planted and managed to protect livestock, enhance production, and control soil erosion. Windbreaks can help communities with harsh winter conditions better handle the impact of winter storms and reduce home heating costs during the winter months.

White mulberry invades forest edges and disturbed forests and open areas, displacing native species. It is slowly outcompeting and replacing native red mulberry (Morus rubra) through hybridization and possibly through transmission of a harmful root disease.