Species: Bartramia longicauda

Courtship is exhibited in spectacular soaring displays while ascending in great circles high into the sky accompanied by a long, drawn-out "whip-whee-ee-you" whistle, and in low over-the-ground flight on stiff, quivering wings (Buss and Hawkins 1939). On the ground, the male will sometimes approach the female, raising his tail and running towards her while giving a short, guttural whistle (Ailes 1976). This pre-copulatory behavior is sometimes followed by mating. <br><br>Initial nesting activity, which is thought to be somewhat synchronous (Higgins and Kirsch 1975), begins two to three weeks after spring arrival in breeding areas, from mid-April to early May (Forbush 1925, Buss and Hawkins 1939, Ailes 1980). The maximum period between the earliest initiated nests and the latest hatched nests in North Dakota (Higgins and Kirsch 1975), Wisconsin (Ailes 1980), and Massachusetts (White and Melvin 1985) ranged from eight to ten weeks. Some late nesting, or renesting, due to early nest failure may occur (Ailes 1980). <br><br>Clutch size is normally four eggs, sometimes three, and rarely five (Bent 1929). Eggs layed mostly May-June (late April to early June in Virginia). Incubate eggs an average of 24 days (Higgins and Kirsch 1975), with extremes of 21-28 days reported by some investigators (Johnsgard 1981). Both sexes incubate. Chicks are precocial and leave the nest within 24 hours after hatching (Ailes 1980). Broods are tended by one (Ailes 1980) or both adults (Buss 1951) until the young attain adult weight and are capable of flight at 30-34 days (Buss and Hawkins 1939, Ailes 1980). Ailes (1980) reported that adults with young in Wisconsin utilized brood-rearing fields within a short distance of the nesting site for several weeks following hatching. In contrast, Buss (1951) found that adults with young in the Yukon Territory required a large home range, up to 3.2 km in diameter. Family groups tend to stay together at least until postbreeding migration. <br><br>Estimates of nesting success in Northern Plains states range from 63% (Lindmeier 1960) to 100% (Lokemoen and Duebbert 1974). Using the Mayfield (1961) method to determine seasonal nest success rates, Buhnerkempe and Westemeier (1988) calculated nest success in Jasper County, Illinois to be 48%. <br><br>The time elapsed between arrival and departure from breeding areas has been observed to be as brief as 100 days (Higgins and Kirsch 1975) and as long as 165 days (Buss and Hawkins 1939). Higgins and Kirsch (1975) correlated the average, frost-free period with dates of first nest initiation and final departure from breeding areas in North Dakota and Wisconsin, and suggested that some breeding ground activities may be directly or indirectly related to temperature at northern latitudes. Buss (1951) correlated the timing of fall migration in the Yukon with decreasing numbers of available insects. <br><br>Data obtained from marked birds in Kansas suggest that upland sandpipers first breed when they are one year old (D. Bowen, pers. comm.). The natural longevity is not known. The longest known survival of a banded bird is five years (Clapp et al. 1982).