Canis lupus

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Formerly throughout North America south through much of Mexico; also Europe and Asia. Replaced by the red wolf in the southeastern United States. Today found south of Canada only in northern Mexico (no recent confirmed reports; extirpated or maybe a few in eastern Sonora, Chihuahua, and/or Zacatecas?), a few areas in the Rocky Mountains (northwestern Montana, reintroduction sites in Wyoming and Idaho), northwestern Great Lakes region (northeastern third of Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, Michigan Upper Peninsula), and Cascade Mountains of northern Washington. Formerly much more numerous in the Rocky Mountain states than in the southwestern U.S. (Johnson 1991). Extirpated in much of southern Canada (see Theberge [1992] and Can. Field-Nat. 106:138 for range/status map); remains in 85% of former total Canadian range (Theberge 1991).

In 1995, wolf reintroductions were initiated in the Yellowstone ecosystem and in central Idaho (nonessential experimental populations) (USFWS 1994; Federal Register, 16 August 1994; Bangs and Fritts 1993; End. Sp. Bull. 20(4):4-5). See Bangs et al. (1998) for information on the status of gray wolf restoration in Montana, Idaho, and Wyoming. In 1998, USFWS (Federal Register, 12 January 1998) announced its intention to reintroduce the Mexican gray wolf (subspecies baileyi) into Arizona and New Mexico (Apache and Gila national forests, also possibly White Sands Missile Range).

Wolf observations in the Dakotas have increased in recent years, likely related to range expansion and population increases in adjacent areas, especially Minnesota; most occurrences have been of young individuals, suggesting dispersal (Licht and Fritts 1994).

Grewal et al. (2004) used genetic data to determine that the wolf population in Algonquin Provincial Park in Ontario, Canada, is a southern part of a larger metapopulation of Canis lycaon (or Canis lupus lycaon).

Gray wolves once ranged throughout the Northern hemisphere, from the Arctic south to southern Mexico, northern Africa, and southern Asia. However, due to habitat destruction, environmental change, persecution by humans, and other barriers to population growth, gray wolf populations are now found only in a few areas of the contiguous United States, Alaska, Canada, Mexico (a small population), and Eurasia.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Native )

Other Geographic Terms: holarctic

The gray wolf is found worldwide, ranging from across Europe to northern
Asia; however, it has been extirpated from much of its former range.
Formerly in North America, the gray wolf ranged from the southern fringe of
Greenland south through mid-Mexico and from the Atlantic to the Pacific
[34].  It occupied almost all regions of the United States except for
deserts and high mountaintops [22,34].  Today the gray wolf occupies about 1
percent of its former range in the contiguous states [10].  It occupies
northeastern Minnesota, northern Wisconsin, the Upper Peninsula of
Michigan, northwestern Montana, central Idaho, and Washington's Cascade
Mountains.  In addition the gray wolf is abundant throughout Alaska and
Canada.  The ranges for the 24 subspecies follow [22,34]:

Ssp. irremotus - Idaho, western Montana, Wyoming, Alberta, and the
                 western fringes of Washington and Oregon
Ssp. columbianus - British Columbia and southwestern Alberta; can
                   move into the northwestern states
Ssp. occidentalis -  northern Alberta and Saskatchewan,
                     northeastern British Columbia, and central
                     Manitoba, into the Yukon and the Northwest
                     Territories
Ssp. lycaon - southeastern Manitoba, Ontario, Quebec, and the
              eastern United States, from the Atlantic to
              central Minnesota, south to northeastern Florida
Ssp. nubilus - thought to be extinct, although it may possibly
               occur in Minnesota [19]; from southern Manitoba
               and Saskatchewan, south through the Great Plains
               into northern Texas
Ssp. alces - the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska
Ssp. pambasileus - Yukon Territory and all but northern Alaska
Ssp. tundrarum - northern Alaska
Ssp. hudsonicus - along the Hudson Bay in the Northwest
                  Territories and Manitoba
Ssp. arctos - Melville Island, Northwest Territories
Ssp. orion - Greenland
Ssp. labradorius - northern Quebec and Newfoundland
Ssp. beothucus - the island of Newfoundland
Ssp. ligoni - Alexander Archipelago, Alaska
Ssp. fuscus - the Cascade Mountains of Washington, Oregon, and
              California
Ssp. crassodon - Vancouver Island, British Columbia
Ssp. youngi - the southern Rocky Mountains of Utah, Arizona,
              New Mexico, Colorado, and Wyoming
Ssp. mogollonensis - central Arizona and westcentral New Mexico
Ssp. monstrabilis - Texas, Mexico, and southeast New Mexico
Ssp. baileyi - central Mexico into southern Arizona and
               New Mexico
Ssp. bernardi - Banks and Victoria Islands, Northwest Territories
Ssp. mackenzii - northern Northwest Territories and Yukon Territory
Ssp. manningi - Baffin Island, Northwest Territories
Ssp. griseoalbus - Alberta, Saskatchewan, Manitoba, Northwest
                   Territories, and Newfoundland

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

    2  Cascade Mountains
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

AK ID MI MN MT WA WV WI WY AB BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK YT

Originally, the Grey Wolf was the world's most widely distributed mammal, living throughout the northern hemisphere north of 15°N latitude in North America and 12°N in India. It has become extinct in much of Western Europe (Boitani 1995), in Mexico and much of the USA (Mech 1970). Their present distribution is more restricted: wolves occur primarily in wilderness and remote areas, especially in Canada, Alaska and northern USA, Europe, and Asia from about 75°N to 12°N.

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

"Gray wolves usually live in packs, led by an ""alpha pair."" The pack includes some of the alpha pair's offspring and may include some unrelated wolves. A pack's territory can be as large as 13,000 square km. Howling probably helps advertise who ""owns"" a particular piece of territory. When pups are born, the mother stays near them for the first three weeks, and her mate and others in the pack bring food to her. The pups are weaned when they about nine weeks old. As adults, they may travel as far as 72 km a day with their pack and run as fast as 70 km per hour."

Adaptation: This transparent view of the wolf braincase shows how the brain is situated within. The large feature projecting from the front of the brain is the olfactory lobe, an important center related to the sense of smell.

Links:
Mammal Species of the World
Click here for The American Society of Mammalogists species account

There are about 40 suspecies of Canis lupus (dogs and wolves) , including two domesticated subspecies (Canis lupus dingo in Australia and Canis lupus familiaris - mans best friend). Many subspecies of wolf occur throughout the Northern hemisphere. Canis lupus is assessed as Least Concern by the IUCN, as its relatively widespread range and stable population trend mean that the species, at global level, does not meet, or nearly meet, any of the criteria for the threatened categories. However, some local populations are classified as Endangered and some subspecies are endangered or extinct. The domestic dogs were derived from the gray wolf domestication about 15,000 years ago. The dog may have been the first animal to be domesticated, and has been the most widely kept working, hunting, and companion animal in human history. They quickly became widespread across world cultures. Dogs perform many roles for people, such as hunting, herding, pulling loads, protection, assisting police and military, companionship, and, more recently, aiding handicapped individuals. In some cultures, dogs are also an important source of meat. In 2001, there were estimated to be 400 million dogs in the world. Over the 15,000-year span in which the dog has been domesticated, it has diverged into a handful of landraces, groups of similar animals whose morphology and behavior have been shaped by environmental factors and functional roles.Selective breeding has produced hundreds of varied breeds, showing more behavioral and morphological variation than any other land mammal. Height measured to the withers ranges from a few inches in the Chihuahua to a few feet in the Irish Wolfhound; color varies from white through grays (usually called blue) to black, and browns from light (tan) to dark (red or chocolate) in a wide variation of patterns.

The domestic dog. This is regarded by most people as a subspecies of Canis lupus, see Canis lupus for a description.

Gray wolves are the largest wild dog species in the world. They vary in size depending on where they are found, with southern populations being generally smaller than northern populations. Total body length, from tip of the nose to tip of the tail, is from 870 to 1,300 mm. Height (measured from base of paws to shoulder) generally ranges from 60 to 90 cm. Males are, on average, larger than females.

Fur color of gray wolves also varies depending on where they are living. Their color ranges from pure white in Arctic populations, to mixtures of white with gray, brown, cinammon, and black to nearly uniform black in some color phases. Their upperparts are generally darker and they have lighter fur on their undersides, the tail is tipped with black.

Gray wolves have a dense underfur layer, providing them with excellent insulation against cold conditions.

Range mass: 23.0 to 80 kg.

Range length: 870 to 1300 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Length: 205 cm

Weight: 40000 grams

Length:
Average: 1,100 mm males; 1,050 kg, females
Range: 1,000-1,300 mm males; 870-1,170 mm females

Weight:
Average: 55 kg males; 45 kg females
Range: 30-80 kg males; 23-55 kg females

Differs from the coyote in larger nose pad (greater than 1 inch vs. less than 1 inch), more rounded ears, larger anteroposterior diameter of upper canine at gum level (more than 11 mm vs. less than 11 mm), larger heel pad on forefoot (more than 1.25 inches vs. less than 1.25 inches), longer skull (more than 215 mm and 2.5 mm vs. less than 215 mm and 205 mm, for males and females, respectively), and relatively shorter canines (in coyote, tips of upper canines extend below level of anterior mental foramina when lower jaw is in place); also, gray wolf holds the tail high when running, coyote holds it low (see Hall 1981 and Hoffmeister 1986 for further details). In some parts of central and eastern North America, coyote approaches wolf in certain characteristics, due to interbreeding. Differs from the red wolf in larger size, longer skull (condylobasal length more than 213 mm and 203 mm vs. less than these measurements for males and females, respectively), and in certain features og the molars (see Hall 1981); however, the red wolf actually may be a coyote-gray wolf hybrid (see GTAXCOM for CANIS RUFUS). Differs from the domestic dog in generally larger size, broader nose pad, more massive skull with heavier teeth, rostrum relatively longer, supraoccipital shield larger and projecting farther posteriorly, front foot track longer and narrower (Hoffmeister 1986).

Gray wolves are one of the most wide ranging land animals. They occupy a wide variety of habitats, from arctic tundra to forest, prairie, and arid landscapes.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: tundra ; taiga ; chaparral ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

More info for the term: tundra

Gray wolves inhabit a variety of plant communities.  Their territories
usually contain a mix of forested and open areas.  Gray wolves can also be
found on the tundra.  In the West, gray wolves have been known to follow
ungulate herds from their lowland wintering grounds to their high summer
pastures [16].  In the East, gray wolves
inhabit a mix of coniferous and
deciduous forests, which include balsam fir (Abies balsamea), black
spruce (Picea mariana), white spruce (P. glauca), white-cedar (Thuja
occidentalis), jack pine (Pinus banksiana), white pine (P. strobus), red
pine (P. resinosa), tamarack (Larix laricina), sugar maple (Acer
saccharum), yellow birch (Betula alleghaniensis), and eastern hemlock
(Tsuga canadensis).  In the West, gray wolves inhabit Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga
menziesii)-spruce (Picea spp.) forests, as well as ponderosa pine (Pinus
ponderosa) and western larch (Larix occidentalis) forests [16,23,28].

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

     1  Jack pine
     5  Balsam fir
    12  Black spruce
    13  Black spruce - tamarack
    15  Red pine
    16  Aspen
    17  Pin cherry
    18  Paper birch
    20  White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    21  Eastern white pine
    24  Hemlock - yellow birch
    25  Sugar maple - beech - yellow birch
    30  Red spruce - yellow birch
    33  Red spruce - balsam fir
    35  Paper birch - red spruce - balsam fir
    37  Northern white cedar
    38  Tamarack
   107  White spruce
   108  Red maple
   201  White spruce
   202  White spruce - paper birch
   203  Balsam poplar
   204  Black spruce
   205  Mountain hemlock
   206  Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
   208  Whitebark pine
   210  Interior Douglas-fir
   211  White fir
   212  Western larch
   213  Grand fir
   215  Western white pine
   217  Aspen
   218  Lodgepole pine
   220  Rocky Mountain juniper
   221  Red alder
   222  Black cottonwood - willow
   223  Sitka spruce
   224  Western hemlock
   225  Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
   230  Douglas-fir - western hemlock
   235  Cottonwood - willow
   237  Interior ponderosa pine
   253  Black spruce - white spruce
   254  Black spruce - paper birch

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

   K003  Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K004  Fir - hemlock forest
   K008  Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
   K010  Ponderosa shrub forest
   K011  Western ponderosa forest
   K012  Douglas-fir forest
   K013  Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
   K014  Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K015  Western spruce - fir forest
   K093  Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K094  Conifer bog
   K095  Great Lakes pine forest
   K096  Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K106  Northern hardwoods
   K107  Northern hardwoods - fir forest

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Comments: No particular habitat preference. In Minnesota and Wisconsin, usually occurs in areas with few roads, which increase human access and incompatible land uses (Thiel 1985, Mech et al. 1988, Mech 1989) but apparently can occupy semi-wild lands if ungulate prey are abundant and if not killed by humans (see Mladenoff et al. 1997). Minimum of 10,000-13,000 sq km (with low road density) might be necessary to support a viable population (USFWS 1990); a single pack does not constitute a "minimum viable population" (USFWS 1990). Young are born in an underground burrow that has been abandoned by another mammal or dug by wolf. In Northwest Territories, dens were most commonly located witin 50 km of northern tree line, which resulted in maximal availability of caribou during the denning and pup rearing period; within the tundra zone, dens were not preferentially located near caribou calving grounds (Heard and Williams 1992). In Minnesota, dens usually were not near territory boundaries; den use was traditional in most denning alpha females studied for more than 1 year; possibly the availability of a stable food supply source helped determine den location (Ciucci and Mech 1992).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Wolves in far northwestern North America may move as required to remain with migratory caribou.

Home ranges very large but very variable as well, generally ranging from less 100 to 10,000s of square kilometers. In Minnesota, Fritts and Mech (1981) found territory sizes ranging from 195 to 555 square kilometers; in south to central Alaska, Ballard et al. (1987) reported territory sizes from 943 to 2541 square kilometers; in the southern Yukon, Hayes (1992) found territory sizes of 583 to 794 km square kilometers; in the Kenai Peninsula, Alaska, Peterson et al. (1984) found average territory sizes of 638 square kilometers; and in coastal forests of Vancouver Island, Atkinson and Janz (1994) found territory sizes from 100 to 400 square kilometers. Packs that depend on barren ground caribou migrate with the caribou as far as 360 km (Kuyt 1972; Mech 1970, 1974). In the Glacier National Park area, territory size averages around 780 sq km (Bangs and Fritts 1993).

In the Northwest Territories and western Nunavut, Walton et al. (2001) fitted 23 wolves in 19 different packs with collar-mounted satellite transmitters. Annual home-range sizes (95% minimum convex polygon) averaged 63,058 sq km for males and 44,936 sq km for females. Straight-line distances from the most distant location on the winter range to the den site averaged 508 km in 1997-1998 and 265 km in 1998-1999 (wolves followed caribou). All but 2 of 15 wolves returned to within 25 km of a previous den, and 2 wolves returned to the same den site.

Dispersing young may move several hundred kilometers. In Minnesota, most dispersers left when they were 11-12 months old; dispersal occurred mainly in February-April and October-November; 35% of known-age wolves remained in their natal territory for more than 2 years (Gese and Mech 1991).

Gray wolves are carnivores. They hunt prey on their own, in packs, steal the prey of other predators, or scavenge carrion. Prey is located by chance or by scent. What wolves eat depends on where they live and what kinds of prey are available. Wolves hunt in packs for large prey such as Alces alces, Cervus elaphus, Bison bison, musk oxen, and Rangifer tarandus. Wolves help to keep prey populations healthy by hunting the weak, old, and sick animals. A wolf can consume up to 9 kg of meat at one meal. Wolves usually eat almost the entire carcass, including some hair and bones. Smaller animals, such as Castor canadensis, Sylvilagus floridanus, and other small mammals are usually hunted by lone wolves. Wolves may also eat livestock and garbage when it is available.

Animal Foods: mammals; carrion

Gray wolves prey mainly on large ungulates, such as moose (Alces alces), deer
(Odocoileus spp.), elk (Cervus elaphus), and caribou (Rangifer
tarandus).  They tend to prey on the young, old, and sick members of
ungulate populations.  Beaver (Castor canadensis) are a major supplement
to gray wolves' diets [23].  Voigt and others [33] reported that gray wolves'
diets vary, depending on relative prey abundance.  Other prey species
include mountain goats (Oreamnos americanus), bison (Bison bison),
pronghorn (Antilocapra americana), various rodents, upland game birds
and waterfowl, snowshoe hare (Lepus americanus), and black bear (Ursus
americana) [6,10,21,23,25,33]. On Isle Royale seeds of wild sarsaparilla
(Aralia nudicaulis) were found in gray wolf scat [7].  Occasionally gray wolves
prey on domestic livestock.

Comments: Predominant prey: ungulates. When these are low or seasonally unavailable, eats alternative prey, such as beaver, snowshoe hare, rodents, and carrion. Commonly hunts in packs, but lone wolves and pairs are able to kill prey as large as adult moose (Thurber and Peterson 1993). In the vicinity of Glacier National Park, feeds primarily on white-tailed deer; sometimes kills mountain lions and sometimes usurps ungulate prey killed by lions (Bangs and Fritts 1993). White-tailed deer and moose carrion were the primary prey in southern Ontario (Forbes and Theberge 1996).

As top predators, gray wolves are important in regulating populations of their prey animals.

Few animals prey on gray wolves. Wolves and coyotes are highly territorial animals so wolves from other packs and Canis latrans will attack wolves that are alone or young. They will kill pups if they find them.

Known Predators:

• coyotes (Canis_latrans)
• gray wolves (Canis_lupus)

Humans are the only significant predator of the gray wolf and have eradicated
it from almost all of its former range worldwide [27,34].  Pimlott and
others [26] noted black bear preying on gray wolf cubs and adults.

Canis lupus is prey of:
Canis lupus
Canis latrans

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Canis lupus preys on:
Sciurognathi
Ochotona ladacensis
Pseudois nahura
Zizyphus
Crotalaria
Leporidae
Gerbillinae
Antilopinae
Boselaphus tragocamelus
Antilope cervicapra
Gazella
Rodentia
Serpentes
Varanidae
Canis aureus
Marmota monax
Marmota broweri
Sciurus carolinensis
Castor canadensis
Microtus xanthognathus
Ursus americanus
Procyon lotor
Felis silvestris
Canis lupus
Vulpes vulpes
Phoca largha
Cervus elaphus
Cervus nippon
Odocoileus virginianus
Rangifer tarandus
Alces alces
Panthera pardus
Bos taurus
Bos grunniens
Puma concolor
Equus hemionus
Equus kiang
Cervus albirostris
Axis porcinus
Gazella gazella
Procapra gutturosa
Tetracerus quadricornis
Capra cylindricornis
Capra ibex
Hemitragus hylocrius
Ovis ammon
Pseudois nayaur
Rupicapra rupicapra
Redunca fulvorufula
Marmota bobak
Marmota caudata
Lepus nigricollis
Canis lupus familiaris

Based on studies in:
Tibet (Montane)
India, Rajasthan Desert (Desert or dune)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Because wolves are wide-ranging it is difficult to estimate the number of distinct occurrences. The 30-km separation between EOs given in EOSPECS is a compromise figure. It could have been smaller in the northern USA where pack home ranges in Minnesota were 130 km2, or larger in Alaska where home ranges up to 13,000 km2 are reported (Mech and Frenzel 1971, Burkholder 1959).

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Canada: about 50,000-58,500 in 1990; subject to hunting and trapping in all but a few percent of the range (Cohn 1990, Theberge 1991).

Alaska: about 6000 (Theberge 1991).

In 1998, there were at least 65 wolves in northwestern Montana, at least 122 in central Idaho, and 116 in the Greater Yellowstone Area (Bangs et al. 1998). In 2004, the northern Rocky Mountains population included more than 800 wolves (USFWS 2006).

Isle Royale population was about 14-16 in 1995. Michigan Upper Peninsula population was 112 in 1996/1997 (End. Sp. Bull. 22(3):21). Wisconsin: 150 in 1997-1997 (End. Sp. Bull. 22(3):21). Minnesota: nearly 2000 in mid-1990s (Mladenoff et al. 1997).

Southwestern U.S. and Mexico: none in the U.S. and very few if any in Mexico.

See Jhala and Giles (1991) for information on status in northwestern India (several hundred remain). Population estimates for the 1980s: former Soviet Union, 88,000; Inner Mongolia, less than 10,000; Yugoslavia, 2000-5000; Poland, about 1000; Spain, about 1000; 2000 or less in each of Iran, Afganistan, India, and Romania (see Theberge 1991). Population in the USSR in the mid-1940s was about 200,000-300,000; reduced to lowest numbers in history by the 1960s; increased to 1940s level by the 1980s; about 40,000 in Russia in 1995 (Yuli Gabur 1996, Natural Areas News 1(2):8-9).

The effect of fire on gray wolf habitat is best defined by how fire affects
gray wolves' prey.  Beaver, elk, moose, and deer are fire-dependent species,
requiring the plant communities that persist following frequent fires
[14,17].  Edwards [8] reported that after fire moose populated the area
around Wells Gray Park, British Columbia, where they were previously
unknown.  This was followed by a marked increase in gray wolves.  Other
studies in Alaska, Michigan, Minnesota, and Canada show an increase in
moose populations following fire [14,15,32].

Now absent from the old-growth forests of Minnesota, caribou once were
an important prey for gray wolves here.  These forests do not provide enough
food to sustain other ungulates for gray wolves to prey on.  Due to fire
exclusion, these old-growth forested areas have increased, checking
ungulate populations and consequently limiting gray wolf populations [15].

Territorial throughout the year in most areas (but see Migration/Mobility comments). Packs consist of one or more family groups (generally 2-8 members, up to 21) with dominance hierarchy. In the Glacier National Park area, packs generally include 8-12 individuals (Bangs and Fritts 1993). Not uncommonly solitary; lone wolves may move through territories of established packs (e.g., see Thurber and Peterson 1993).

Population density is low; at Isle Royale National Park, Michigan, peak density was 9/100 sq km. Population density on Isle Royale followed trends in food supply (moose), with lag of 2-3 years (Peterson and Page 1988).

Generally wolves are not instrumental in causing prey declines; effect varies with other circumstances. In Quebec, winter weather appeared to affect deer population trend more than did wolf predation (Potvin et al. 1992). In south-central Alaska, wolf predation may have limited caribou recruitment (Bergerud and Ballard 1988), though winter starvation also was proposed as a significant poplation control. May take livestock as secondary prey when deer fawns (the primary summer prey) are less vulnerable due to better prenatal nutrition resulting from mild winter (USFWS 1990). In Minnesota, snow-induced changes in deer distribution and mobility resulted in changes in wolf movement patterns, sociality, and feeding behavior (when snow was shallow, wolves traveled farther and more often, spent less time with pack members, and used conifer cover less and killed fewer deer there) (Fuller 1991).

Rank is communicated among wolves by body language and facial expressions, such as crouching, chin touching, and rolling over to show their stomach.

Vocalizations, such as howling allows pack members to communicate with each other about where they are, when they should assemble for group hunts, and to communicate with other packs about where the boundaries of their territories are. Scent marking is ordinarily only done by the alpha male, and is used for communication with other packs.

Comments: Mainly nocturnal. In fall-winter in Minnesota, spends most of time sleeping, resting, or traveling, little time feeding (Mech, 1992, J. Mamm. 73:570-571). In south-central Alaska, den site activity was mainly nocturnal; there was a high probability that groups of wolves would be present at the den at midday (Ballard et al., 1991, Can. Field-Nat. 105:497-504).

Gray wolves may live thirteen years in the wild, though average lifespan is 5 to 6 years.  As adults they usually die from old age or from injuries received while hunting or fighting with other wolves.  In captivity they may live to be fifteen years of age.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 13.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 5.0 years.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 15.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 10.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20.0 years.

Average lifespan
Sex: female
Status: wild: 13.7 years.

Average lifespan
Sex: female
Status: captivity: 16.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 16.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20.0 years.

Maximum longevity: 20.6 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, 10 year-old females have been known to give birth and record longevity is 13.7 years (Ronald Nowak 1999). One wild born male was around 20.6 years old when he died in captivity (Richard Weigl 2005).

The dominant pair in a grey wolf pack are the only members that breed. This pair is monogamous although, with the death of an alpha individual, a new alpha male or female will emerge and take over as the mate.

Mating System: monogamous ; cooperative breeder

Breeding occurs between the months of January and March, with northern populations breeding later in the season than southern populations. Female gray wolves choose their mates and often form a life-long pair bond. Gray wolf pairs spend a great deal of time together. After mating occurs, the female digs a den in which to raise her young. The den is often dug with an entrance that slopes down and then up again to a higher area to avoid flooding. Pups are born in the den and will remain there for several weeks after birth. Other dens are under cliffs, under fallen trees, and in caves.

The gestation period lasts between 60 and 63 days, litter size ranges from five to fourteen, with the average size being seven pups.

Female pups reach maturity at two years of age, while males will not reach full maturity until three years of age.

Breeding interval: Gray wolves breed once each year.

Breeding season: Gray wolves breed between January and March, depending on where they are living.

Range number of offspring: 5.0 to 14.0.

Average number of offspring: 7.0.

Range gestation period: 63.0 (high) days.

Average weaning age: 45.0 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.0 to 3.0 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.0 to 3.0 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 450 g.

Average number of offspring: 6.

Gray wolf pups are born blind and deaf. They weigh approximately 0.5 kg and depend on the mother for warmth. At ten to fifteen days of age, the pups' blue eyes open, but they only have control over their front legs, thus crawling is their only mode of mobility. Five to ten days later, the young are able to stand, walk, and vocalize.  Pups are cared for by all members of the pack. Until they are 45 days old the pups are fed regurgitated food by all pack members. They are fed meat provided by pack members after that age. During the 20th to 77th day, the pups leave the den for the first time and learn to play fight. Interactions at this time, as well as the dominance status of the mother, ultimately determines their position in the pack hierarchy. Wolf pups develop rapidly, they must be large and accomplished enough to hunt with the pack with the onset of winter. At approximately ten months old, the young begin to hunt with the pack.

Parental Investment: no parental involvement; altricial ; pre-fertilization (Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning; maternal position in the dominance hierarchy affects status of young

Breeds late fall/early winter in south, February-March in north. Gestation lasts about 2 months. Young are born in March and early April in the south (Hoffmeister 1986), late April in northwestern Montana, late May-early June in Northwest Territories (Heard and Williams 1992). Litter size is 4-10 (average 6-7); 1 litter/year. Only the dominant male/female mate and rear offspring. Pups emerge from the den in about 3 weeks. Pups are weaned in 50 days (also reported as 5 weeks). Young and parents vacate the den when young are about 3 months old (Hoffmeister 1986). Some offspring remain with the pack, others disperse as they mature. Breeding first occurs in the second or third year (Hoffmeister 1986). Lone wolves generally do not successfully rear young, but they may if food is abundant (Boyd and Jimenez, 1994, J. Mamm. 75:14-17).

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 271
Specimens with Barcodes: 283
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

No available public DNA sequences.

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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 1
Specimens with Barcodes: 31
Species With Barcodes: 1

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 284 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

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Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Holarctic distribution; survives in wilderness that is not subject to human population pressures; extirpated from most of contiguous U.S. due to human-caused direct mortality; reintroduced populations in Yellowstone and central Idaho have been increasing rapidly; many (tens of thousands) remain in Canada/Alaska, about 2000 south of Canada, 100,000+ in Palearctic. NatureServe rank calculator version 3.1 yielded a rank of G5? and this species is nationally ranked N5 in Canada. However, until a more comprehensive review can be done by NatureServe, our rank will remain G4G5.

"Few animals have ever haunted our dreams or fired our imaginations more than the wolf. Unfortunately, by the early part of this century, man had almost exterminated the wolf from the lower 48 states. The recovery of the wolf is becoming an impressive conservation success story and a gift to future generations" (Bruce Babbitt, Secretary of the Interior).

Wolves play an important role in the ecosystem by controlling natural prey populations and removing weak individuals. Unfortunately, people who keep livestock believed that gray wolves posed a terrible threat to their herds and wolf extermination programs became widespread. Populations of gray wolves were nearly eradicated. Currently in the lower 48 United States, about 2,600 gray wolves exist, with nearly 2,000 in Minnesota (compared to the few hundred living there in the mid-20th century). Successful recovery plans have been developed throughout the country These plans evaluate populations to determine distribution, abundance, and status.  The main cause of population declines has been habitat destruction and persecution by humans. But the reintroduction of gray wolves into protected lands has greatly increased the likelihood of their survival in North America.  Populations in Alaska and Canada have remained steady and are fairly numerous. Currently the State of Alaska manages 6,000 to 8,000 gray wolves and Canada's populations are estimated at about 50,000. The wolves in Canada are managed by provincial governments and are not currently threatened.

In western Eurasia gray wolf populations have been reduced to isolated remnants in Poland, Scandinavia, Russia, Portugal, Spain, and Italy. Wolves were exterminated from the British Isles in the 1700's and nearly disappeared from Japan and Greenland in the 20th century. Greenland's wolf populations seem to have made a full recovery. The status of wolf populations throughout much of eastern Eurasia is poorly known, but in many areas populations are probably stable.

Gray wolves are listed were until recently listed as endangered by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service and as threatened by the state of Michigan DNR. Most U.S. populations of gray wolves have now been delisted, except for experimental populations of Mexican gray wolves in the southwest. They are in CITES Appendix II, except for populations in Bhutan, India, Nepal and Pakistan, which are in Appendix I.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i; appendix ii

State of Michigan List: threatened

More information on the state-level protection status of gray wolves in the United States
is available at NatureServe, although recent changes in status may not be included.

The gray wolf is delisted in the mountain-prairie and Great Lakes-Big Rivers
regions and as an Experimental Population (nonessential) in the Southwest [30].

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2004
  Least Concern
  (IUCN 2004)
• 1996
  Lower Risk/least concern
• 1994
  Vulnerable
  (Groombridge 1994)
• 1990
  Vulnerable
  (IUCN 1990)
• 1988
  Vulnerable
  (IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1988)
• 1986
  Vulnerable
  (IUCN Conservation Monitoring Centre 1986)
• 1982
  Vulnerable
  (Thornback and Jenkins 1982)

Native, resident?

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Degree of Threat: B : Moderately threatened throughout its range, communities provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure of the community over the long-term, but are apparently recoverable

Comments: Exterminated from large areas through trapping, shooting, poisoning, and reduction in prey populations (ungulate herds). Threatened by direct human-caused mortality and possibly habitat loss. Landscape change resulting from development may interfere with restoration in some areas (Carroll et al. 2003). Heavily persecuted in former Soviet Union and in China.

The threats to the northern Rocky Mountain wolf population have been reduced or eliminated as evidenced by the
population exceeding the numerical, distributional, and temporal recovery goals each year since 2002 (USFWS 2006).

Conservation Actions

Restoration Potential: Natural recolonization from populations to the north may not be sufficient for restoration of wolf populations in the southern Rocky Mountains. Due to predicted reductions in carrying capacity resulting from development trends and likely landscape change, active reintroduction to two sites within the southern Rocky Mountain region may be necessary to ensure low extinction probability (Carroll et al. (2003).

Management Requirements: See Mladenoff et al. (1997) for a discussion of management related to wolf recovery in the Great Lakes region versus other aspects of biodiversity (e.g., wolves depend on high densities of deer, which can have negative impacts on natural communities and their constituent species). See Cohn (1990) and Matthews and Moseley (1990) for brief discussions of issues related to reintroduction (e.g., compensation for livestock losses, wolf protection status, state vs. federal jursidiction over wolf management). See Fritts et al. (1992) for information on management of wolf-livestock conflicts in Minnesota. See USFWS (1994, Final EIS) and Federal Register (16 August 1994) for an extensive discussion of all issues related to reintroduction in Yellowstone and central Idaho. See Jhala and Giles (1991) for management recommendations for populations in northwestern India. See Theberge (1991) for information on management in Canada.

Limit access of humans and livestock in protected areas.

Global Protection: Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Packs and habitat are protected in at least Isle Royal National Park (Michigan), Denali National Park (Alaska), and Algonquin Provincial Park (Ontario).

Needs: Need to protect several large tracts of lands as rangeland for wolf packs.

Gray wolves may sometimes kill livestock. The extent of livestock loss to wolves is often overstated, wolves typically prefer their wild prey.

Historically, the fur of grey wolves was used for warmth. As top predators in many ecosystems, wolves are important in controlling populations of their prey.

Wolves are important in our culture, many people believe they symbolize the spirit of wilderness. Wolf products, including posters, books, and t-shirts are very popular. Wolf ecotourism is a major source of revenue for parks and reserves.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; ecotourism

Comments: See Gasaway et al. (1983) for information on wolf-prey-human relations in interior Alaska. Wolves sometimes prey on livestock or game ungulates, especially during the wolf denning period. Wolf depredation on livestock increased in the late 1980s and reached a record high level in Minnesota by 1990, and wolf sightings in a designated "no wolf" zone dramatically increased (USFWS 1990; see also Fritts et al. 1992). In recent years the USDA Animal and Plant Health Inspection Service has killed 6-42 wolves annually in livestock-depredation control actions in the northcentral U.S. (USFWS 1990). As of 1990, wolf depredation control was to continue, though possibly limited by funding shortfalls. See Fritts (1982) for information on control of predation on livestock in Minnesota. In Canada, recent annual kill by humans was estimated at 7% of population (Theberge 1991).