Grus canadensis

In North America, this species breeds as far north as Alaska and the Arctic coast of Canada south into the Great Lakes region and westward across Idaho, Nevada and Oregon. It also breeds in the extreme southeastern United States and Cuba. The winter range of this species includes parts of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Georgia, Florida and northern Mexico. Populations of sandhill cranes are also found in northeastern Siberia, Andyrland, and on the Chyukotski peninsula and Wrangel Island.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Introduced ); neotropical (Native )

Global Range: (20,000-2,500,000 square km (about 8000-1,000,000 square miles)) Breeding range extends from northeastern Siberia, northern Alaska, and middle arctic Canada (to Baffin Island) south locally to northeastern California, Nevada, Wyoming, Colorado, South Dakota, Illinois, and Michigan, formerly south to Nebraska, Indiana, and Ohio; also locally from southern Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia south through Florida to Cuba and Isles of Pines. Winter range extends from the southern United States south to northern Mexico and Cuba.

See Johnsgard (1983, 1991) for a fairly detailed maps of the breeding and wintering ranges. See Pogson and Lindstedt (1991) for information on specific wintering areas in California. See files for subspecies.

In North America, this species breeds as far north as Alaska and the Arctic coast of Canada south into the Great Lakes region and westward across Idaho, Nevada and Oregon. It also breeds in the extreme southeastern United States and Cuba. The winter range of this species includes parts of California, New Mexico, Arizona, Texas, Georgia, Florida and northern Mexico. Populations of sandhill cranes are also found in northeastern Siberia, Andyrland, and on the Chyukotski peninsula and Wrangel Island.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); palearctic (Introduced ); neotropical (Native )

More info for the term: swamp

Sandhill cranes are widely distributed across North America, though they occur in limited areas within their geographic range. The three migratory subspecies (Canadian, greater, and lesser) breed across the northern United States and Canada as well as eastern Siberia, with wintering grounds in the southern United States and northern Mexico. The three nonmigratory subspecies (Mississippi, Florida, and Cuban) have restricted ranges in the southern United States (Mississippi, Georgia, and Florida) and Cuba [102]. The breeding range of sandhill cranes was historically more extensive, once including Illinois and Ohio, and extending south to Arizona, Baja California, and northwestern and central Mexico [136]. NatureServe provides a distributional map of sandhill cranes.

The distribution of each sandhill crane subspecies is described below:
Canadian sandhill crane: The range of the Canadian sandhill crane is difficult to define because of its potential interbreeding with lesser and greater sandhill cranes. It is thought that Canadian sandhill cranes breed across subarctic Canada, from northern Ontario through northern Alberta, Saskatchewan, and Manitoba to west-central British Columbia. Birds from the eastern portion of this range winter mainly in coastal Texas with greater sandhill cranes. It is not clear where western populations winter, though it is likely that they winter in California, New Mexico, Texas, and Mexico with the western populations of greater and lesser sandhill cranes. In spring, Canadian sandhill cranes stage along the Platte and North Platte Rivers in Nebraska (review by [102]).

Cuban sandhill crane: The Cuban sandhill crane is found only on the island of Cuba and the nearby islands and keys of the Cuban archipelago ([158], review by [102]).

Florida sandhill crane: The Florida sandhill crane occurs in peninsular Florida from the Everglades north to southern Georgia in and around the Okefenokee Swamp ([113,158], review by [102]). It is thought that its range once extended throughout the southern United States. As of 1996, the greatest abundance of Florida sandhill cranes occurred near Florida's Kissimmee and Desoto Prairies (review by [102]).

Greater sandhill crane: The greater sandhill crane nests in the northern United States and southern Canada, from the Great Lakes west to the Pacific Ocean [158]. Five populations of greater sandhill cranes are discussed here, though there may be additional geographically and morphologically distinct populations.

Eastern population: The eastern, or Great Lakes, population of greater sandhill cranes breeds in south-central Canada and the north-central United States in the Great Lakes area, including southern Ontario, Michigan, Wisconsin, northern Illinois, northern Iowa, and southeastern Minnesota (review by [102]). Individuals observed in Maine may belong to this population [104]. The eastern population migrates through the east-central United States to wintering grounds in southern Georgia and central Florida. Birds from the western part of the breeding range may winter along the Texas Gulf Coast (review by [102]). The primary staging area for the eastern population of greater sandhill cranes is the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area in northwestern Indiana [89].

Prairie population: The prairie population of greater sandhill cranes breeds in northwestern Minnesota, southwestern Ontario, and southern Manitoba. They winter along the eastern Texas coast of the Gulf of Mexico west of Houston (review by [102]).

Rocky Mountain population: The Rocky Mountain population of greater sandhill cranes breeds in west-central and southwestern Montana, central and eastern Idaho, northeastern Utah, western Wyoming, and northwestern Colorado. Colorado's San Luis Valley is a major spring and fall staging area for this population. Its main wintering grounds are in the Middle Rio Grande Valley in New Mexico [31,158], with other scattered wintering areas in southwestern New Mexico, southeastern Arizona, and north-central Mexico (review by [102]).

Colorado River Valley population: The Colorado River Valley population of the greater sandhill crane breeds in northeastern Nevada and southwestern Idaho, migrates through Nevada, and winters along the lower Colorado River in Arizona, in California's Imperial Valley, and along the Gila River in southwestern Arizona (review by [102]).

Central Valley population: The Central Valley population of the greater sandhill crane breeds in south-central and southeastern Oregon and northeastern California, with scattered breeding areas in southern British Columbia and on Vancouver Island. This population winters in the Central and Imperial Valleys of California (review by [102]).

Lesser sandhill crane: The lesser sandhill crane breeds in the Arctic, including extreme northeastern Siberia, much of western Alaska and northern Canada, many Arctic Islands, and potentially the Hudson Bay watersheds of western and northern Ontario. It winters from southern California, eastern New Mexico, western Texas, and southeastern Texas, south into Mexico to Jalisco, Guanajuato, San Luis Potosi, Baja California, and northwestern Sonora. There are a few records of lesser sandhill cranes wintering in Japan with flocks of other crane species [158]. The major spring staging area for this subspecies is along the Platte and North Platte Rivers in Nebraska (review by [102]).

Mississippi sandhill crane: The Mississippi sandhill crane is found only in Jackson County, Mississippi [151,158], though that population may be a remnant of a larger population that once extended from western Louisiana to Georgia and into peninsular Florida [151].

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Breeding

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Sandhill cranes are large birds with long necks and legs. They are about 1.2 m tall, and have wing spans of about 2 m. They are grayish all over, with a white cheek and a bright red bald crown. Sandhill cranes can be identified in flight by the way the hold their neck (straight out) and the way they beat their wings. Their wings beat slowly downward, and the quickly flick upward.

Male and female sandhill cranes look very similar, but males are usually larger than females. Young sandhill cranes look similar to adults, but are usually more brownish-gray than adults.

There are six subspecies of sandhill cranes. These subspecies look similar, but they differ in body size. They also breed in different places.

Range mass: 3200 to 5200 g.

Average wingspan: 2 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

More info for the term: marsh

Sandhill cranes are heavy-bodied, long-legged, long-necked, long-billed birds. Adults weigh from 2.72 to 5.44 kg (6.0-12.0 lbs) [78], with males generally larger than females [136]. The sexes are similar in plumage [136]; adults are slate gray except in the summer when self-preening with marsh debris stains plumage to a rusty brown [78]. Stained plumage eventually fades as body feathers are molted through the season [31]. Adults have dark red papillose skin on the crown; immature birds have rusty brown plumage on the crown until their postjuvenile molt is complete [78].

Sandhill cranes are large birds with heavy bodies and long necks and legs. They stand about 1.2 m tall, with wing spans of about 2 m. They are uniformly grayish, with a white cheek and a bald red crown. Sandhill cranes can be distinguished from other large wading birds in flight by their outstretched neck, and their wingbeats, which are a slow downward beat followed by a quick upward flick.

Male and female sandhill cranes are similar in appearance, though males are usually larger than females. For example, males of the G. c. canadensis subspecies average 3.75 kg whereas females average 3.34 kg. Juvenile sandhill cranes tend to be much more brownish than adults.

There are six subspecies of sandhill cranes. These subspecies are distinguished based upon morphology (size) and geographic separation.

Range mass: 3200 to 5200 g.

Average wingspan: 2 m.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; bilateral symmetry ; polymorphic

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Length: 104 cm

Weight: 5797 grams

Sandhill cranes usually prefer large open grasslands and freshwater marshes or bogs. They also seem to prefer to be far away from humans. During migration, sandhill cranes are often seen feeding on crops and leftover crop stubble in agricultural fields. At night they roost together in large marshes.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian

More info for the terms: bog, cover, duff, fen, fern, ferns, forbs, fresh, hardwood, lichen, lichens, marsh, muskeg, natural, peat, shrub, shrubs, swamp, tree, tundra

Given the large geographic range and migratory status of some subspecies, sandhill cranes inhabit a variety of plant communities. Sandhill cranes usually require a mosaic of plant communities at any given time to provide habitat for a range of activities including nesting, foraging, and roosting. Sandhill cranes are often associated with wetland plant communities but are also found in tundra, savanna, grassland, riparian forest, and boreal forest plant communities. The following section summarizes general plant community associations for each of the 6 subspecies of sandhill crane. Subspecies are organized by their migratory or nonmigratory status. See Preferred habitat for detailed information on plant communities used for specific life history activities.

Migratory subspecies: This section is organized by plant communities used in the breeding season or used while staging, migrating, or wintering.

Plant communities used by migratory subspecies in the breeding season:
Canadian sandhill crane: There is little information available on plant communities used by Canadian sandhill cranes during the breeding season. Reviews state that Canadian sandhill cranes occur in boreal forests, aspen parklands [124], muskeg and other shallow wetland communities, open and forested bogs, and other boreal forest wetland types [102].

Greater sandhill crane:
Eastern population: In Maine, sandhill cranes were observed in areas dominated by sphagnum moss (Sphagnum spp.) in mounds <10 feet (3 m) high, American woollyfruit sedge (Carex lasiocarpa), and scattered leatherleaf (Chamaedaphne calyculata). Other common herbaceous plants included sheathed cottonsedge (Eriophorum vaginatum), white beaksedge (Rhynchospora alba), cattail (Typha spp.), threeway sedge (Dulichium arundinaceum), Northwest Territory sedge (C. utriculata), boreal bog sedge (C. magellanica), buckbean (Menyanthes trifoliata), cranberry (Vaccinium macrocarpon), pitcher-plant (Sarracenia purpurea), and spoonleaf sundew (Drosera intermedia). Common shrubs included sweetgale (Myrica gale) and speckled alder [104].

In northern Michigan, greater sandhill cranes occurred in bogs, where common plants included bog Labrador tea (Ledum groenlandicum), leatherleaf, bog laurel (Kalmia polifolia), bog rosemary (Andromeda glaucophylla), trailing arbutus (Epigaea repens) and wintergreen (Gaultheria procumbens), with neighboring trees of tamarack (Larix laricina), black spruce (Picea mariana), red pine (P. resinosa), jack pine (P. banksiana), and eastern white pine (Pinus strobus) [158]. At the Seney National Wildlife Refuge, Upper Peninsula, Michigan, sandhill cranes occurred in an area that was 54% marsh, grassland, and shrub, 7% lowland conifer, 7% open water, and 2% lowland hardwood forest. Predominant vegetation in marshes and along pool edges was broadleaf cattail (Typha latifolia), sedges (Carex spp.), hardstem bulrush (Schoenoplectus acutus), soft-stem bulrush (S. tabernaemontani), and speckled alder (Alnus incana subsp. rugosa) [100], with emergents covering 43% of the wetlands. Lowland conifer habitat consisted of black spruce bogs with an understory of ericaceous shrubs and sphagnum. Bog forests containing tamarack, black spruce, and red maple (Acer rubrum) were interspersed with patches of sedge marsh and strips of upland sand ridges supporting eastern white, red, and jack pines [8]. Lowland hardwood forests consisted primarily of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides) and paper birch (Betula papyrifera) [100]. In southern Michigan, greater sandhill cranes occurred on irregular, marshy "arms" extending between wooded ridges, tamarack peninsulas, and ash-maple (Fraxinus spp.-Acer spp.) bottomland [155]. Also in Michigan, sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of cattail- and sedge-dominated marshes, forested wetlands containing tamarack and various shrubs, and upland forests dominated by second-growth oaks (Quercus spp.) and hickories [53].

In central Wisconsin, greater sandhill cranes occurred in floating sedge bogs, shallow grass, sedge and cattail marshes, and flooded aspen flats. The area was a mixture of low marsh basins and slightly higher sand islands divided by numerous drainage ditches. Basins once held timbered swamps, bogs, and open marshes, while islands once held stands of eastern white and red pine. Repeated fires following artificial drainage consumed most of the peat and forest duff in sandy uplands. Aspen (Populus spp.) and willow (Salix spp.) established on most of the peat, while jack pines and scrub oaks replaced the eastern white and red pines, though some large peat areas remained. Some tamarack-black spruce swamps and leatherleaf-bog Labrador tea bogs persisted; both are associated with grass marshes and vast tracts of even-aged aspen [45]. Greater sandhill cranes were observed on the forested floodplain of the Upper Mississippi River on the borders of Minnesota, Wisconsin, and Iowa. The forest community was dominated by silver maple (Acer saccharinum), elm (Ulmus spp.), green ash (F. pennsylvanica), swamp white oak (Q. bicolor), eastern cottonwood (P. deltoides), hackberry (Celtis occidentalis), and river birch (B. nigra) [68].

Rocky Mountain population: In northwestern Colorado, greater sandhill cranes occurred in open parkland, with sagebrush (Artemisia spp.) -covered ridges interspersed with willow-lined drainages. Open parkland was surrounded by quaking aspen mixed with lodgepole pine (P. contorta), fir (Abies sp.), and blue spruce (P. pungens) at higher elevations [15]. In northern Utah and southwestern Wyoming, greater sandhill cranes used a landscape that included pastures (55%), small grain fields (19%), riparian areas (8%), alfalfa (Medicago sativa) fields (6%), corn (Zea sp.) fields (3%), and other plant communities (9%) [97,98]. In southeastern Idaho, sandhill cranes occurred in a 22,000 acre (8,900 ha) marsh; approximately 80% to 90% of the marsh was covered with emergent vegetation, mainly hardstem bulrush and lesser amounts of broadleaf cattail [31]. In eastern Idaho, breeding habitat included bulrush-Baltic rush-spikerush (Scirpus spp.-Juncus balticus-Eleocharis sp.) and sedge bands surrounding shallow wetlands, beaver-induced wetland ponds along spring creeks, dense cattail bands along a river drainage, mixed willow/sedge bands along riparian corridors, and open sedge/rush basins. Foraging sites adjacent to nesting areas were primarily composed of sagebrush, cinquefoil (Potentilla spp.), rabbitbrush (Ericameria bloomeri), bunch grasses, upland forbs, quaking aspen, and cottonwoods (Populus spp.) [101].

Central Valley population: In south-central Washington, greater sandhill cranes occurred in wet meadows with willows, sedges, tufted hairgrass (Deschampsia cespitosa), and timber oatgrass (Danthonia intermedia). Wet meadow stringers occurred between forested stands of lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii), grand fir (A. grandis), ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), and western larch (L. occidentalis) [77]. At the Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in southeastern Oregon, most breeding occurred in marsh vegetation [64,65]. Coarse emergent vegetation in this area included hardstem bulrush, broadleaf cattail, and broadfruit bur-reed (Sparganium eurycarpum) [83]. In eastern Oregon, greater sandhill crane breeding habitat included 6 wetland complexes adjacent to big sagebrush (A. tridentata) or ponderosa pine habitats [84]. In northeastern California, greater sandhill crane breeding habitat included open wet meadows containing rushes (Juncus spp.), spikerush (Eleocharis spp.), broadfruit bur-reed, grasses, sedges, hardstem bulrush, and broadleaf cattail [82].

Lesser sandhill crane: Lesser sandhill cranes breed in arctic tundra plant communities ([16,70,91,119,158], review by [124]). In the Northwest Territories, lesser sandhill cranes occurred on eskers with 75% lichen cover, primarily bryocaulon lichen (Bryocaulon divergens), and other lichens (Flavocetraria nivalis, F. cucullata). Black crowberry (Empetrum nigrum), bog blueberry (Vaccinium uliginosum), and lingonberry (V. vitis-idaea) were also present [91].

In Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in tundra broken up by major rivers, small ponds, and large lakes. Common vegetation included alders (Alnus spp.), short sedges, grasses, moss, bog Labrador tea, dwarf birch (Betula nana), black crowberry, salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), blueberry (Vaccinium spp.), lingonberry, and dense patches of cotton sedge (Eriophorum sp.). Sandhill cranes also occurred in muskeg with clumps of spruce (Picea spp.) or marshes dominated by sedges and grasses and shallow water. On southern Banks Island, sandhill cranes were found on sand dunes with scattered dune grass [158]. In northwestern Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in the Kobuk River drainage and Kobuk Dunes [103], a transitional area between forest and tundra. The dunes were dominated by balsam poplar (Populus balsamifera), while river valleys were dominated by paper birch, white spruce (Picea glauca), and black spruce forests [119]. On the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska, lesser sandhill cranes bred in an area comprised of heath-marsh tundra mosaics and sedge-grass meadows interspersed with thousands of small ponds [16].

In eastern Siberia lesser sandhill crane breeding habitat consisted of moderately-wet polygonal tundra comprised of hummock mounds surrounded by scattered water. Mosses covered the ground in most areas, forming a 4 to 12 inch (10-30 cm) layer of peat. Other characteristic plants included sedges, cottongrasses (Eriophorum sp.), bluegrasses (Poa spp.), and dwarf willow [159].

Unidentified subspecies (Canadian, greater, or lesser): In the Interlake region of central Manitoba, sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of low forested ridges interspersed with low-lying, poorly drained forested muskegs of black spruce and tamarack, open bog and fen muskegs, and small intermittent lakes. Quaking aspen was prevalent in some areas. Elsewhere the forest vegetation was dominated by black and white spruce mixed with poplar (Populus spp.) and paper birch, with jack pine occurring on sandy, well-drained ridges. Muskeg vegetation characteristic of low, poorly drained areas included black spruce, tamarack, sphagnum moss, dwarf birch, ericaceous shrubs, and a variety of sedges, grasses, and rushes. Dominant vegetation of fens included sedges, grasses, bulrushes, broadleaf cattail, willows, and dwarf birch, with scattered black spruce and tamarack. There were limited cereal and hay fields in the vicinity [105].

Plant communities used by migratory subspecies during staging, migrating, and wintering:
Staging: This section is organized into plant community descriptions of 3 major staging areas: the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area in northwestern Indiana, the Platte River Valley in Nebraska, and the Copper River Delta in Alaska.

Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area: Plant communities around sandhill crane staging areas include a combination of low sand ridges once dominated by black oak forests and prairie marsh grasses, and upland areas with oak-hickory (Carya spp.) forests. Agricultural lands cover a large proportion of the area [88]. The plant communities of seasonally flooded basins and inland fresh meadows vary by location, with some sites dominated by fall panicgrass (Panicum dichotomiflorum), common cocklebur (Xanthium strumarium), marigolds (Bidens spp.), and/or rice cutgrass (Leersia oryzoides). American woollyfruit sedge and bluejoint reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis) occur in peripheral areas. Willow and river birch establish on the edges of these wetlands. Inland fresh marshes with wide borders of inland fresh meadow contain marsh grasses and sedges extending from shore, with dense yellow pond-lily (Nuphar lutea), American white waterlily (Nymphaea odorata), and coon's tail (Ceratophyllum demersum) occurring in deeper water. Some areas are dominated by spikerush, American woollyfruit sedge, rice cutgrass, woolgrass (Scirpus cyperinus), or bluejoint reedgrass. Willow, silky dogwood (Cornus amomum), and swamp rose (Rosa palustris) often form dense stands at forest borders. Inland fresh marshes bordered by forests contain dense thickets of common buttonbush (Cephalanthus occidentalis), common winterberry (Ilex verticillata), and swamp smartweed (Polygonum hydropiperoides) at the waterline surrounded by pin oak (Q. palustris), river birch, and willow [88].

Platte River: The vegetation of the Platte River Valley includes riparian woodlands, low shrub islands, mudflats along the river channel, and wet meadow grasslands on adjacent river terraces. Riparian woodland consists of open-canopy, widely spaced eastern cottonwood forest with understory species such as eastern redcedar (Juniperus virginiana) and roughleaf dogwood (Cornus drummondii) [26,115]. In some areas, green ash, hackberry, and American elm (U. americana) are common [26]. Low shrub islands contain yellow willow (S. lutea), peachleaf willow (S. amygdaloides), narrowleaf willow (S. exigua), and desert false indigo (Amorpha fruticosa) [26,115]. Temporarily flooded mudflats are dominated by tufted lovegrass (Eragrostis pectinacea), nutsedges (Cyperus spp.), and common cocklebur. Wet meadow grasslands contain Olney threesquare (Scirpus americanus), sedges, and common spikerush (Eleocharis palustris) [26]. Unvegetated sandbars are also present [26,115]. Agricultural lands are abundant in the area [69].

Copper River Delta, Alaska: Lesser sandhill cranes stage along the eastern Copper River Delta, Alaska, an island of open marsh habitat within the western hemlock-Sitka spruce (Tsuga heterophylla-Picea sitchensis) coastal rainforest ecoregion. The 4 major habitat types are medium shrub, wet meadow, salt grass meadow, and intertidal mudflats. Medium shrub habitat consists of dense stands of sweetgale, Lyngbye's sedge (Carex lyngbyei), purple marshlocks (Comarum palustre), and bluejoint (Calamagrostis canadensis), often in standing water ≤1.6 feet (0.5 m). Stringers of Sitka alder (Alnus viridis subsp. sinuata) and Sitka spruce occur along the numerous streambanks and lake margins. Wet meadow habitat occurs on former intertidal salt marsh areas and consists of a mosaic of plant communities ranging from small ponds and wet depressions to higher, well-drained slough banks. The area is dominated by mosses and also contains areas of Sitka spruce, sweetgale, Sitka alder, and willow scrub. Salt grass meadow occurs on former intertidal mudflats, with Ramenk's sedge (Carex ramenskii), goose tongue (Plantago maritima), Pacific silverweed (Argentina egedii), and alkaligrass (Puccinellia spp.) at the mean high tide line. Moss cover dominates higher tide areas. Woody vegetation is absent, and substrates consist of bare mud and silt. The intertidal mudflat habitat is unvegetated except for a sparse growth of macroalgae (Ulva sp.) [51].

Migrating: Sandhill cranes are an uncommon migrant through bunchgrass (Agropyron spp. or Festuca spp.) and sagebrush habitat in Washington and Oregon [122]. In Colorado, a greater sandhill crane migration stopover site is centered on the Monte Vista National Wildlife Refuge, a large complex of marsh habitat surrounded by many small grain fields [148].

Wintering: In the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, greater sandhill cranes wintered in a deep peat swamp-marsh complex, consisting of a mosaic of freshwater wetland types, including emergent marshes, shrub swamps, swamp forests, and lakes [13]. Three major marsh types in the area included macrophyte marshes dominated by American white waterlily, goldenclub (Orontium aquaticum), and flattened pipewort (Eriocaulon compressum), herbaceous marshes dominated by emergent graminoids, including maidencane, broomsedge bluestem (Andropogon virginicus), and sedge, and mixed scrub-shrub marsh with stands of loblolly bay, pondcypress (Taxodium distichum var. imbricarium), fetterbush lyonia (Lyonia lucida), and swamp titi (Cyrilla racemiflora) [14].

In western Texas, lesser sandhill cranes used a variety of habitats in winter, including mixed-grass, shortgrass, and tallgrass prairies. The most abundant grasses included buffalo grass (Buchloe dactyloides), blue grama (Bouteloua gracilis), sideoats grama (B. curtipendula), black grama (B. eriopoda), little bluestem (Schizachyrium scoparium), western wheatgrass (Pascopyrum smithii), Indiangrass (Sorghastrum sp.), and switchgrass (Panicum sp.) [158]. Also in western Texas, midcontinental populations of sandhill cranes wintered on shortgrass prairie invaded by mesquite (Prosopis sp.) and yucca (Yucca sp.), with sorghum and cotton fields nearby [61].

At the Bosque del Apache National Wildlife Refuge, New Mexico, sandhill cranes wintered in wetlands with yellow nutsedge (Cyperus esculentus), bearded sprangletop (Leptochloa fusca ssp. facicularus), barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli), yellow foxtail (Setaria pumila), cupgrass (Eriochloa spp.), Johnson grass (Sorghum halepense), and fall panicgrass [141].

In the northern Central Valley of California, wintering sandhill cranes occurred in riparian forests dominated by Fremont cottonwood (Populus fremontii), California sycamore (P. racemosa), northern California walnut (Juglans hindsii), willows, and boxelder (Acer negundo) [54]. Canadian, lesser, and greater sandhill cranes also wintered in the Central Valley in areas where remnants of valley oak (Q. lobata) woodlands, grasslands, and wetlands were interspersed with large areas of agricultural production. Flooded rice (Oryza sativa) lands, pastures, and areas of native and managed marshes were used by sandhill cranes [117].

Some sandhill cranes wintered in the western grasslands of Washington and Oregon. Grasslands were dominated by Roemer's fescue (Festuca idahoensis ssp. roemeria), red fescue (F. rubra), and California oatgrass (Danthonia californica). Some savanna areas had these grasses plus some cover of Oregon white oak (Q. garryanna), ponderosa pine, or Douglas-fir [66].

Nonmigratory subspecies: This section describes plant communities used by the 3 nonmigratory subspecies of the sandhill crane: Cuban, Florida, and Mississippi.

Cuban sandhill crane: Cuban sandhill cranes inhabit dry savannas and pine flats year-round ([42,156], review by [124]). Overstory trees include tropical pine (Pinus tropicalis), Caribbean pine (P. caribaea), Everglades palm (Acoelorraphe wrightii), as well as scattered shrubs [158] such as trumpet tree (Tabebuia lepidophylla) [156].

Florida sandhill crane: Florida sandhill cranes inhabit a mixture of wetland [14,35,113,144,158] and open forest [35,78,113,158] plant communities. Florida sandhill cranes also use open pastures [35,113,158] and agricultural fields [76,113].

In north-central Florida, Florida sandhill cranes were found in persistent and nonpersistent wetlands dominated by maidencane (Panicum hemitomon), pickerelweed (Pontederia cordata), and smartweeds (Polygonum spp.). In areas with deeper water, yellow pond-lily and American white waterlily were the predominant vegetation. Open pasture zones contained Bermuda grass (Cynodon dactylon), bahiagrass (Paspalum notatum), and common carpetgrass (Axonopus fissifolius). Upland sites contained live oak (Q. virginiana), turkey oak (Q. laevis), and longleaf pine (P. palustris), with red maple and sweetgum (Liquidambar styraciflua) on the lower, wetter sites. Slash pine (P. elliottii) plantations and fields of corn, peanuts, and hay were also present [113]. Florida sandhill cranes were also found in wide-open prairies that contained stands of cabbage palmetto (Sabal palmetto), either lone or scattered trees intermixed with saw-palmetto (Serenoa repens), and occasional longleaf pine or slash pine. In some areas, stands of live oak, or rarely water oak (Q. nigra), occurred. In lowland regions, redbay (Persea borbonia), sweetgum, baldcypress (Taxodium distichum var. distichum), and red maple were present [158].

In the Green Swamp of Florida, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of pondcypress and swamp with loblolly bay (Gordonia lasianthus), sweetbay (Magnolia virginiana) [35,158], and swamp bay (Persea palustris); herbaceous marsh; longleaf and slash pine flatwoods; scrub oak (Quercus spp.); orange groves; and bahiagrass pasture containing scattered oak and pine [35].

At the Loxahatchee National Wildlife Refuge, Florida, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in wet prairie communities of relatively low stature plants interspersed with stands of sawgrass (Cladium sp.). The dominant plants of the wet prairie community included Tracy's beaksedge (Rhynchospora tracyi) and slim spikerush (Eleocharis elongata). Also present were slough aquatic communities which supported American white waterlily. The wetland complex was broken up by thousands of tree islands varying from a few trees to several hundred acres in size. Major plants on the tree islands included redbay, dahoon (Ilex cassine), wax-myrtle (Myrica cerifera), coco plum (Chrysobalanus interior), laurelleaf greenbrier (Smilax laurifolia), grape (Vitis sp.), and several ferns [144].

In the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, Florida sandhill cranes occurred in a mosaic of freshwater wetland types including marshes, shrub swamps, swamp forests, and lakes. Three major marsh types included macrophyte marshes dominated by American white waterlily, goldenclub, and flattened pipewort, herbaceous marshes dominated by emergent graminoids including maidencane, broomsedge bluestem, and sedge, and mixed scrub-shrub marsh with stands of loblolly bay, pondcypress, fetterbush lyonia, and swamp titi [14]. Most of the marshes were formed by fires that burned away peat layers and created openings in formerly forested swampland. Most of the marshes in this area contained peat and had a low pH (reviewed by [12]).

Mississippi sandhill crane: Mississippi sandhill cranes occur in savanna, swamp, and pine woodland plant communities, as well as agricultural areas, in Mississippi. Restored savanna habitats include scattered trees including pondcypress, slash and longleaf pines, shrubs such as inkberry (Ilex glabra), large gallberry (I. coriacea), wax-myrtle, and greenbriar (Smilax spp.), as well as threeawns (Aristida spp.), toothache grass (Ctenium aromaticum), bluestem grasses (Andropogon spp.), and beaksedges (Rynchospora spp.). Forested drainages are found along bayous and creeks, and dominant overstory species include slash and longleaf pines, pondcypress, and black tupelo. Thick midstories of swamp titi and wax-myrtle often develop, while sedges (Cyperaceae) and grasses (Poaceae) dominate in more open drainages and swampy areas [161]. Forested depression swamps contain a mixture of pondcypress and slash and longleaf pines, with several shrub species and an herbaceous understory of sphagnums, spadeleaf (Centella asiatica), western bracken fern (Pteridium aquilinum), and beaksedges. Within or along the edges of the swamps in depressions of the savannas are small marsh communities containing Baldwin's nutrush (Scleria baldwinii), sedges, and grasses [151]. Natural and planted pine woodlands are a mixture of longleaf pine and slash pine, with slash pine dominating plantations [126]. Pine plantations have a midstory of inkberry, large gallberry, wax-myrtle, sweetbay, and swamp titi and an understory of threeawn, toothache grass, and panic grasses (Dicanthelium spp.) [161]. Agricultural lands consist of planted yellow nutsedge, corn, ryegrass (Lolium sp.), and sunflowers (Helianthus sp.) [161].

Sandhill cranes use postfire habitat, particularly for foraging ([48,57,93,120,131,143,158,160], Reinecke personal communication cited in [69]). See Indirect fire effects for more information on sandhill crane use of burned areas.

Sandhill cranes encounter a variety of climatic conditions across their geographic range. Nonmigratory subspecies complete their life history in generally warm climates like that of Florida, where winter temperatures are mild, with lows in January and February of 46 to 50 °F ( 8-10 °C), and summers are hot and humid, with high temperatures in July and August of 86 to 90 °F (30-32 °C) [113]. Migratory subspecies face a broader range of climatic conditions, breeding in places such as eastern Siberia, where summer temperatures range from 25 to 72 °F (-4 to 22 °C) and snow and ice may be present at the beginning of the breeding season [159]. Overwintering of migratory subspecies occurs in warmer climates, like the mild winter climate along the Gulf Coast of Texas [57].

Systems

• Terrestrial
• Freshwater

Most sandhill crane populations nest in open grasslands, such as wet meadows, and freshwater marshes or bogs. There are six subspecies of sandhill cranes, and each typically nests in the open, wet grassland habitats of their region. The Cuban population of sandhill cranes (Grus canadensis nesiotes) is an exception, inhabiting dry, isolated regions, sometimes in rocky and mountainous terrain.

Sandhill cranes prefer to be far from human habitation. However, during migration, they are commonly seen feeding on crops and crop residue in agricultural fields. At night they congregate to roost in large marshes.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: savanna or grassland ; forest

Wetlands: marsh ; swamp ; bog

Other Habitat Features: agricultural ; riparian

Comments: Breeding habitat includes open grasslands, marshes, marshy edges of lakes and ponds, and river banks (Terres 1980). Nests are on the ground or in shallow water on open tundra, large marshes, bogs, fens, or wet forest meadows. Individuals exhibit high fidelity to breeding territories (see Littlefield 1995). During the nonbreeding season, sandhill cranes roost at night in shallow water along river channels, on alluvial islands of braided rivers, or in natural basin wetlands. A communal roost site consisting of an open expanse of shallow water is a key feature of wintering habitat (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Along the North Platte River in spring, roosts are generally in shallow water (< 20 cm), 11-50 m from the nearest visual obstruction, and away from paved or gravel roads, single dwellings, and bridges (Norling et al. 1992). See also Folk and Tacha (1990) for a description of roost site characteristics in the North Platte River Valley. Cranes migrating in spring through interior Alaska often roost on river overflow ice of the Tanana River or on the ice of ponds and lakes (Johnsgard 1991). Feeding and resting often occur in fields and agricultural lands.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Nesting populations in Alaska arrive on breeding grounds from late April to mid-May, depart mainly from late August to early October, arrive in California in December and in Texas from October to January. Migrants depart California beginning in late February. Departure from Texas wintering areas occurs mainly from late February to early March.

Populations of nesting in the contiguous western United States depart breeding grounds from September to November. Cranes from the Rocky Mountain population arrive in the San Luis Valley (Colorado) by late August, peak in October, depart in November. Northbound cranes arrive back in San Luis Valley in early Februry, depart mainly in late March-early April, arrive back on nesting areas in early April.

Eastern nesting populations depart nesting areas from late September to early December, with peak departures in early October. They arrive on Florida wintering areas by late October, with most arrivals by mid-November to mid-December. Departure from Florida occurs from late February to early April (mainly early March. Arrival in nesting areas occurs primarily in early to mid-April. The Jasper-Pulaski Game Area in northwestern Indiana is the only known major fall staging area for the eastern population (Johnsgard 1983).

North Platte and Platte River valleys are important spring staging areas, early March to mid-April; the Platte Valley harbors (in late March) the largest crane concentration in the world; in 1985, total spring population in Platte Valley was estimated at 515,000.

About 150,00-200,000 of the mid-continent migrants move through upper Tanana River Valley in eastern Alaska, primarily late April to mid-May and late August-early October (especially second half of September); these summer in most of interior and western Alaska and northeastern Siberia, and winter mostly in eastern New Mexico, western Texas, and adjacent northern Mexico (Kessel 1984). Another 22,000-25,000 move north from central California through the interior of British Columbia and stage on the Copper River Delta, Alaska (Littlefield and Thompson 1982; C. D. Littlefield, pers. comm., in Campbell et al. 1990).

More than half of the wintering population of large sandhill cranes in the Central Valley of California may originate in coastal and interior British Columbia (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991).

See Johnsgard (1983, 1991) for fairly detailed maps indicating the fall migration routes of various populations.

Subspecies PRATENSIS and PULLA are resident along sections of the Gulf Coast.

Sandhill cranes are omnivorous. They use their bills to probe the ground for food and to glean seeds and other foods. These birds feed on land or in shallow marshes with vegetation. They eat different foods throughout the year, depending on what is available. Cultivated grains such as corn, wheat and sorghum are a favorite food when they are available. Other foods that sandhill cranes eat include berries, small mammals, insects, snails, reptiles, and amphibians.

Animal Foods: mammals; amphibians; reptiles; insects; mollusks

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Sandhill cranes are omnivorous birds that use their bills to probe for subsurface food and glean seeds and other foods. These birds feed on land or in shallow marshes with vegetation. Foods vary depending on what is available. Cultivated grains such as corn, wheat and sorghum are a major food source in their diet when available. In northern latitudes, a wider variety of foods are consumed, including berries, small mammals, insects, snails, reptiles, and amphibians.

Animal Foods: mammals; amphibians; reptiles; insects; mollusks

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit

Primary Diet: omnivore

Comments: Feeds on roots, tubers, seeds, grain, berries, small vertebrates (mice, lemmings, birds, snakes, lizards, etc.), earthworms, and insects. Forages in marshes, meadows, pastures, and fields (Terres 1980). Most food items are obtained on the surface of the ground or among low vegetation; also may use bill to dig out roots and tubers. Feeding in fields occurs primarily in nonbreeding areas. Young forage for invertebrates during first few weeks of life. In spring in Nebraska, forages in cornfields, native grasslands, and planted haylands, generally a few to several kilometers from roost site (Sparling and Krapu 1994).

Young and sick sandhill cranes provide food for their predators. Sandhill cranes affect the populations of species that they prey upon. They also host at least 24 different species of parasites.

When bird predators come near to sandhill cranes, the cranes fly at the predator and kick it with their feet. When other predators approach sandhill cranes, the cranes threaten the predator by spreading their wings and pointing their bill at the predator. If this doesn't work, they attack the predator, hissing and stabbing with their bills and kicking with their feet.

Known Predators:

• Vulpes
• Procyon lotor
• Canis latrans
• Canis lupus
• Lynx rufus
• Corvus brachyrhynchos
• Corvus corax
• Falconiformes
• Strigiformes

Young and sick sandhill cranes provide food for their predators. Sandhill cranes affect the populations of species that they prey upon. They also host at least 24 different species of parasites.

When approached by an avian predator, sandhill cranes fly at the predator, kicking it with their feet. When approached by a mammalian predator, sandhill cranes move toward the predator with their wings spread and their bill pointed at the predator. If the predator persists, sandhill cranes will attack, hissing, stabbing with their bills and kicking with their feet.

Known Predators:

• foxes
• raccoons
• coyotes
• wolves
• bobcat
• crows
• ravens
• hawks and eagles
• owls

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total population is several hundred thousand. The number of birds staging in fall in northwestern Indiana increased from 35 in 1935 to about 14,000 in 1979, reflecting population increases in the Great Lakes region and possibly Manitoba (Johnsgard 1983). Great Lakes population consisted in the mid-1980s of more than 16,000; increased fourfold in numbers over past two decades (Johnsgard 1991, Herkert 1992). Rocky Mountain population was 17,000-20,000 in the mid-1980s (Johnsgard 1991), 20,500 in 1996 (USFWS 1996). In the 1980s, mid-continent population was 400,000-600,000, most of which use the Platte River as an important migration stopover area (Norling et al. 1992). About 25,000 winter in the Central Valley of California, including at least 6000 greater and Canadian sandhill cranes (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991). Arctic-tundra-breeding populations total 200,000-500,000 (Johnsgard 1991). G. C. NESIOTES of Cuba and Isle of Pines: total population in 1990 was thought to be 54 (Johnsgard 1991).

Follow this link to the U.S. Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service to see a table with fire regime information that may be relevant to habitats in which this species occurs

Gregarious in winter and in migration.

Sandhill cranes communicate using body signals and calls. Adult sandhill cranes use more than 10 different calls to communicate. Their calls are quite loud and sound like "trills", "purrs" and "rattles". Sandhill cranes use calls to defend their territory, to let others know that there is a predator nearby, and in many other interactions with other cranes. Breeding pairs may call together in a duet to defend their territory.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

More info for the term: avoidance

The primary social units of sandhill crane populations are unmated adults, pairs, and family groups [137]. Unmated adults and family groups are largely separate during the breeding season but combine with unsuccessful pairs to form large aggregations during migration and overwintering (review by [136]). For migratory subspecies, spring staging areas are a primary area for courtship displays, renewing or maintaining pair bonds, and strengthening family group associations [51]. In an expanding greater sandhill crane population in Michigan, breeding pairs comprised 68% of the population [53].

At a fall staging area of greater sandhill cranes at Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area in northwestern Indiana, family groups were consistently dominant over nonbreeders in roosting and foraging sites. Family groups sometimes avoided large flocks, possibly because avoidance behavior may require less energy than aggressive behavior, or chances of separation may increase with flock size [90]. At fall staging areas on the Copper River Delta, Alaska, family groups of lesser sandhill cranes separated from the larger flock during daytime feeding but returned to the flock for roosting or to continue migration [51]. In the fall, Florida sandhill cranes in south-central peninsular Florida formed loose aggregations in favorable feeding areas; pairs and families tended to stay together and were somewhat isolated from other individuals [76].

Nonbreeders may make up a large portion of the overall sandhill crane population. At fall staging at the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area, nonbreeding greater sandhill cranes comprised 59% of the population one year, and 65% another year [90]. In a population of greater sandhill crane at Grays Lake, Idaho, nonbreeders comprised 31% to 39% of the total population annually [31]. During the breeding season, nonbreeders often form large flocks, foraging and roosting together [87,105,133,142].

Diurnal habit of species: In general, sandhill cranes roost at night and forage during the day [51,61,62,134,155]. Midday loafing and preening may occur, either near foraging areas or at roost sites [155]. Pairs with young follow the same diurnal pattern but tend to roost and forage near the nest site until young are old enough to fly [78,127]. Staging and migrating sandhill cranes generally roost at night, leave roosts near sunrise, feed in agricultural fields during the day, and return to roosts at sundown [61,62,134].

Weather conditions may impact daily behaviors of sandhill cranes. At a spring staging concentration of the midcontinental population in the Platte River Valley of Nebraska, cranes left roosts later on days with fog or precipitation [128]. In the fall, sandhill cranes staging at the Jasper-Pulaski Fish and Wildlife Area in northwestern Indiana tended to stay at roost sites on cold, windy days. Sandhill cranes would often use a secondary roost (e.g., pasture) during the day, especially in inclement weather [89]. On the Copper River Delta, Alaska, staging lesser sandhill cranes avoided completely open roost sites during severe storms [51].

Sandhill cranes communicate primarily using physical displays (see Mating Systems section) and vocalizations. Adult sandhill cranes have a repertoire of more than a dozen calls, which can be described as variations on "trills", "purrs" and "rattles". Calls are used in territorial advertisement, social interactions and to notify others of a nearby predator. Breeding pairs may call in duet in order to advertise their occupancy of a territory.

Communication Channels: visual ; acoustic

More info for the terms: selection, swamp

Arrival on breeding territories: Migratory sandhill cranes return to breeding territories in the spring; the exact dates vary by subspecies and location. In northern areas, breeding territories may still be snow-covered when sandhill cranes arrive. Lesser sandhill cranes returning to Alaska may encounter frozen lakes and rivers [16,91] or snow >10 inches (25 cm) deep [91]. Greater sandhill cranes in northwest Ontario arrive in mid-April and congregate in ploughed fields until snow melts, then move to breeding territories [36]. In Idaho, nest initiation may begin as soon as snow melts from nesting areas [6]. Sandhill cranes often encounter snow upon arrival to breeding grounds.
Photo courtesy of US Fish and Wildlife Service.

Nesting dates: Nest initiation varies by subspecies and location. Resident subspecies may initiate breeding much earlier than migratory subspecies.

Nesting dates for sandhill cranes throughout their range. Adapted from [158]. Subspecies Location Nesting date range Average nesting date Canadian Saskatchewan, Alberta, British Columbia, Manitoba 11 April-1 July 26 May Cuba Isle of Youth 23 March-10 June 30 April Florida Florida 10 December-1 June 13 March Georgia 2 March-12 April 29 March Greater Idaho 6 May-20 June 26 May Iowa 4 May-29 May 19 May Michigan- lower peninsula 1 April-1 July 25 April Michigan- upper peninsula 28 April-1 July 19 May Oregon 7 April-4 July 1 May Lesser Alaska 23 May- 6 August 15 June Banks Island, Northwest Territories 10 June-10 July 16 June

Mississippi

Mississippi 29 March-10 June 2 May

Sandhill crane nest initiation may be influenced by several factors, including temperature, availability of snow-free sites, water levels, and social interactions. In southern Michigan, greater sandhill cranes laid eggs earlier in relatively warm springs than in relatively cold springs [155]. Breeding was delayed by late spring cold temperatures at the Walker Bay Field Station, Northwest Territories [41]. On the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska, few snow-free areas may be available when lesser sandhill cranes return, limiting nest site selection [16]. In the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, nesting chronology varied by year and was strongly influenced by water levels; nest initiation was later in drought years [14]. In the Green Swamp of Florida, Florida sandhill cranes in large marshes that also supported migrant greater sandhill cranes nested later than those in smaller marshes without migrant cranes. The author hypothesized that resident cranes on larger marshes spent more time in territorial and social activities and consequently nested later [35].

Egg hatching: Hatching dates vary across the range of sandhill cranes, with nonmigratory subspecies generally hatching earlier than migratory subspecies.

Hatching dates for different subspecies of sandhill cranes Subspecies Location Hatching dates Canadian Alberta 29 May-8 June [158] Cuban Isle of Youth, Cuba April-early May [158] Florida north-central Florida mean: 12 March [112] Florida mean: 2 April; range: mid-January to mid-June [158] Florida 7 March one year, 25 February the other; ranged from 2 January-22 April [35] Greater southern Michigan mean: 13 May; range: 2 May-10 June [158] southern Michigan mean: 17 May-18 May; range: 5 May-10 June [155] northeastern Montana 18 May (single nest) [118] central Wisconsin 3 June (single nest) [45] Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming 7 June, 9 June (2 nests) [25] Lesser unspecified after 20 June [158] Unknown Interlake region of central Manitoba late May-June [105]

Staging/migration: Initial staging prior to fall migration occurs from late summer to early fall when young start flying [31,45,80,106,148,158]. Additional stopover or staging areas may be used along the way from fall to mid-winter [89]. Sandhill cranes arrive on wintering grounds in late fall to early winter [13,114,127]. Spring staging and departure generally occur from February to early April [13,69,89,114,148].

Comments: In the Platte River area, flights from roosts occur primarily shortly after sunrise; often returns to roost site around sunset (Johnsgard 1983).

The oldest known sandhill crane lived at least 21.6 years. Most sandhill cranes do not live nearly that long.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 21.6 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 375 months.

Records from captive birds suggest that sandhill cranes may live 20 to 30 years. Marked sandhill cranes in the wild were at least 14 years old ([78], review by [124]). Florida and greater sandhill cranes >19 years old were observed successfully producing young [112].

Sandhill cranes that reach independence are expected to live about seven years. The oldest known sandhill crane lived at least 21.6 years.

Range lifespan
Status: wild: 21.6 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 375 months.

Maximum longevity: 31.2 years (wild) Observations: Though animals are mature earlier, breeding normally only begins at about age 5 (http://www.fs.fed.us/database/feis/).

Sandhill cranes are monogamous (one male mates with one female). Once breeding pairs form, they remain together for many years. This species uses many fancy courtship displays to attract a mate and to maintain a bond with their mate. Sandhill cranes trying to attract a mate "dance" for the potential mate. "Dancing" includes five displays, called the Upright wing stretch, Horizontal head pump, Bow, Vertical leap and Vertical toss. Once pairs have formed, they call together and perform dances together to maintain their pair bond.

Mating System: monogamous

Sandhill cranes raise one brood of chicks per year. In non-migratory populations, they lay eggs anytime between December and August. In migratory populations, sandhill cranes usually lay their eggs in April and May. The male and female work together to build the nest. Nests are made of plant material, and are usually in marshes, bogs, or swales. When the nest is finished, the female lays 1 to 3 eggs. The eggs are oval-shaped and brown with reddish spots. Both parents incubate the eggs. Incubation lasts for 29 to 32 days.

When the chicks hatch, they are covered in soft down. They can walk and even leave the nest the same day they hatch. The parents brood the chicks to protect them and keep them warm for up to 3 weeks. They also feed the young. The chicks stay with their parents until they are 9 or 10 months old. When they leave their parents, the young cranes form flocks. They stay in these flocks until they find a mate and begin breeding between the ages of 2 and 7 years old.

Breeding interval: Sandhill cranes raise one brood per year.

Breeding season: In non-migratory populations, egg-laying can happen any time between December and August. In migratory populations, sandhill cranes usually lay their eggs in April and May.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 3.

Range time to hatching: 29 to 32 days.

Average time to hatching: 30 days.

Range time to independence: 9 to 10 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 7 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 to 7 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average eggs per season: 2.

Sandhill cranes care for their chicks for a long time. Both parents build the nest and incubate the eggs. Both parents also feed the chicks and protect them for up to 10 months after they hatch.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents

More info for the terms: marsh, natural, swamp

Nest success is defined as having at least one egg hatch successfully. Nest success is variable, with documented nest success ranging from 37.5% to 87%.

Nest success for various populations of sandhill cranes Subspecies Location Nest success (%) Florida Green Swamp, Florida 68 [35] Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia 57 [14] Greater northeastern California 37.5 [82] north-central Colorado 73 [130] Grays Lake, Idaho 78 [31] Grays Lake, Idaho 60; ranged from 51 to 72 over 4 breeding seasons [9] southeastern Idaho 51.8 [6] Upper Peninsula, Michigan 61.0 [100] Malheur NWR, Oregon 72; ranged from 51 to 87 over 9 breeding seasons [64,65] Lesser Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska 66.7 [16]

Predation is the most common reason for nest failure [14,16,31,35,64,65,81,82,100]. In the Okefenokee Swamp, predation by raccoons was the reason for 75% (60 nests) of unsuccessful Florida sandhill crane nests [14]. At Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in southeast Oregon, 69% of 506 greater sandhill crane nests were destroyed by predators [64,65]. In northeastern California, 54% of 30 greater sandhill crane clutches were destroyed by predators, mostly coyotes [82]. See Predation for more information on this topic.

Weather, including temperature and precipitation, may also impact nest success. Greater sandhill crane nest success was higher in relatively warmer springs at Malheur National Wildlife Refuge in southeast Oregon [64,65]. In south-central peninsular Florida, most variation in percentage of pairs with young was explained by rainfall in January and March, with January rainfall stimulating reproduction and March rainfall reducing productivity [76]. At the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, chick mortality from drowning and pneumonia was suspected in a year with prolonged rainfall and peak water levels at the time of hatching. Water levels fluctuating either above or below normal led to low recruitment rates [14].

Low water levels in drought years usually reduce sandhill crane nest success. Drought reduces water levels around nests, which may increase predation risk and reduce the availability of food and drinking water [9,33,82]. In northeastern California, drought may have contributed to greater sandhill crane pairs not nesting, high predation rates at nests, and subsequently low nest success and low recruitment [82]. In Idaho, low moisture and hard summer frosts were linked to a decrease in invertebrate abundance, which may have led to low chick recruitment [9]. In north-central Florida, when marsh water levels were unusually low, Florida sandhill crane nesting efforts were reduced, and mortality following fledging was high (83%) [112]. Low recruitment was observed at fall migration stopovers in Colorado and wintering grounds in Mexico in years where drought persisted at breeding grounds [33]. In contrast, Cuban sandhill cranes had higher reproductive success when October and November precipitation was lower than average [42].

Though drought may often result in low nest success, at the other extreme, flooding may also result in nest failure [14,35,64,65,81,100]. Nest failure may also result from abandonment [35,64,65,81,82], often in response to human [14,31,148] and even researcher [31,35,65,151,158] disturbance. Nests may also fail due to infertile [35,64,65,81,82,100] or rotten [16,35,100] eggs. Sandhill cranes may abandon nests due to mate mortality [31].

Human development may impact sandhill crane nest success. In southeastern Florida, Florida sandhill cranes nested in both isolated wetlands adjacent to either pastures, prairies, or pine flatwoods, or in littoral zones of man-made ponds and lakes in suburban developments. Most of these artificial wetlands received runoff from golf courses, streets, and lawns, facilitating encroachment of cattails. There were 42 nesting attempts in natural wetlands and 31 attempts in developed wetlands. Sandhill cranes in natural wetlands initiated nesting more than a month earlier and were more successful breeders (67% vs. 26%; P<0.01) than those in developed wetlands. Sandhill cranes in natural wetlands also produced more fledglings/pair (0.86 vs. 0.32) and had more fledglings/pair survive to independence (0.45 vs. 0.16) than those in developed wetlands. The results of this study suggest that developed wetlands likely represent habitat sinks and should not be promoted as mitigating sandhill crane habitat [147].

Land management practices also impact sandhill crane nest success. At Malheur National Wildlife Refuge, haying, livestock grazing, and predator control did not influence nest success, while prescribed fire did (See Indirect fire effects). Other factors reported to influence nest success included water depth at nest, vegetation type around nest, and nest concealment [64,65].

Renesting: In some populations, it is fairly common for sandhill cranes to attempt renesting if the first nest fails. In a population of greater sandhill cranes at Grays Lake, Idaho, renesting occurred when clutches were lost prior to mid-incubation [31]. In this same area, renesting attempts ranged from 1.5% to 10.5% of all nests over 4 years; 2 pairs renested twice in the same season, apparently in response to researcher disturbance [4,9].

Renesting rates are higher for Florida sandhill cranes, which one author attributes to the longer nesting period in this area compared to other areas. Over 4 years of study at Paynes Prairie, Florida, 78% of birds that abandoned nests or had eggs removed from their nests renested [110]. In the Green Swamp of Florida, of 111 Florida sandhill crane nests observed over 2 years, 21% were second efforts [35]. One year, at the Okefenokee Swamp, Georgia, 70% of the Florida sandhill cranes that were unsuccessful at their first attempt renested; some nested a third time (29% one year, 40% in another). The incidence of renesting was closely tied to water levels, with low water levels associated with drought leading to few renesting attempts. The mean nest success rates for first attempts was 59%; for second attempts, 54%. However, the mean survival rate of broods from first nests (40%) was significantly lower than survival from second nests (56%) (P<0.05) [14].

Unsuccessful sandhill crane pairs in southeastern Saskatchewan [21] and on the Yukon-Kuskokwim Delta, Alaska [16] did not renest following nest failure.

Nest description: Sandhill crane nests usually consist of piles of whatever vegetation is readily available [16,42,127,135,151,158]. Consequently, nest composition varies by location. Cow manure may also be used in nest construction [31,135]. See nest site descriptions in Preferred habitat for specific materials used in nest construction. Sandhill crane nest in southwestern Montana.

The size of sandhill crane nests varies within and between subspecies (for nest dimensions, see: [31,42,104,127,151,155,156,158]); nests of both the Canadian [158] and lesser [16] sandhill cranes ranged from minimal piles of vegetation to large haystacks [158]. Greater sandhill cranes in Idaho took 1 to 7 days to construct their nests [31], while lesser sandhill cranes may complete nest building in a few minutes [158].

Sandhill crane nests are often placed at the edges of wetlands [14,31,104] or on islands or hummocks surrounded by water [105,159], though they are occasionally found on top of old muskrat houses [31,158]. Sandhill cranes prefer relatively undisturbed areas for nest placement [31,150].

More info for the terms: formation, marsh, selection

Sandhill crane mate selection occurs during elaborate courtship displays involving both dancing and vocalization (review by [136]). For midcontinental populations, pair formation occurs primarily during spring staging in Nebraska, often in wet pasture [137]. Pairs exhibit bonding behavior upon arrival on breeding grounds. Soon after returning to the breeding area, greater sandhill crane pairs at Grays Lake, Idaho, began preening with pieces of wet, decaying marsh vegetation which changed their plumage color from gray to reddish-brown [31].

Pairing is perennial, usually lasting as long as a mate lives ([138], review by [136]), though repairings do occur. Twenty-one pairs of Florida sandhill cranes were monitored from 1977 to 1988; 33% remained together while 67% changed mates (1 individual 4 times), for a total of 17 repairings. Fifty-three percent of the repairings occurred after the death of a mate, while 18% resulted from "divorce", with no mate mortality. Unproductive pairs did not necessarily divorce, particularly if they had produced young in the past [111].

Clutch size of sandhill crane nests ranges from 1 to 3, with 2 eggs most common (review by [136]). See the following publications for additional information on [6,14,16,31,35,42,58,76,82,100,105,110,144,151,155,158].

While not common, Canada goose eggs were occasionally found in greater sandhill crane nests at Gray's Lake, Idaho [31].

Greater sandhill cranes may pair as 2-year-olds but do not usually nest until the 3rd or 4th year (review by [90]). The mean age of successful first reproduction (young raised to independence) was 4.3 for greater sandhill cranes and 5.2 for Florida sandhill cranes [112]. Individuals from the midcontinental population of sandhill cranes nesting primarily in northwestern Canada and Alaska paired as early as age 3, but more commonly at ages 5 to 6. Sandhill cranes raised young to independence as early as age 5, but 76% of recruitment was from individuals >8 years old. Once pairs successfully raised young, they continued to be successful, though only approximately 25% of the population were successful parents at any given time [138]. For both Florida and greater sandhill cranes, >50% of offspring were produced by a minority (<30%) of adults [112].

Sandhill crane eggs are laid at 24- to 48-hour intervals [78] and are subsequently incubated approximately 28 to 31 days [31,78,127,151,158]. Incubation is performed by both parents [31,127,155]. Nests are rarely left unattended during incubation; if nests are unattended, it is usually the failure of the male to relieve the female after long periods of incubation [31]. Sandhill crane eggs hatch asynchronously [78,155]. The hatching process takes 24 to 36 hours [78]. In southern Michigan, greater sandhill crane eggs hatched on successive days [155].

Sandhill cranes are perennially monogamous. Breeding pairs remain together from year to year, maintaining the pair bond by performing courtship displays, remaining in close proximity and calling together in unison. Breeding pairs form during spring migration. This species is noted for its elaborate courtship displays. Five courtship displays have been identified as part of "dancing," the primary mechanism of pair formation in this species. These displays are the Upright wing stretch, Horizontal head pump, Bow, Vertical leap and Vertical toss. Three courtship displays are used exclusively by paired adults to maintain the pair bond and synchronize reproductive development. These are the Bill up, Copulation and Unison call displays.

Mating System: monogamous

Sandhill cranes raise one brood per year. In non-migratory populations, egg-laying can begin as early as December or as late as August. In migratory populations, egg-laying usually begins between early April and late May. Both members of a breeding pair build the nest using plant material from the surrounding areas. Nest sites are usually in marshes, bogs, or swales, though cranes will occasionally nest on dry land.

The female lays 1 to 3 (usually 2) eggs that are oval-shaped and dull brown with reddish brown markings. Both parents participate in incubation, which lasts 29 to 32 (usually 30) days. Incubation begins with the laying of the first egg and continues until the second egg has hatched. The chicks are precocial; they hatch covered in down, with their eyes open and are able to leave the nest within 24 hours of hatching. The parents brood the chicks for up to 3 weeks after hatching. They feed the young intensively for the first few weeks, and with decreasing frequency until they reach independence at 9 or 10 months old.

The chicks remain with their parents until 1 or 2 months before the parents begin laying the next clutch of eggs. After leaving their parents, the chicks form nomadic flocks with other subadults and non-breeders. They remain with these flocks until they form breeding pairs and begin breeding between the ages of 2 and 7 years old.

Breeding interval: Sandhill cranes raise one brood per year.

Breeding season: In non-migratory populations, egg-laying can happen any time between December and August. In migratory populations, sandhill cranes usually lay their eggs in April and May.

Range eggs per season: 1 to 3.

Range time to hatching: 29 to 32 days.

Average time to hatching: 30 days.

Range time to independence: 9 to 10 months.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2 to 7 years.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2 to 7 years.

Key Reproductive Features: seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate)

Average eggs per season: 2.

Sandhill cranes provide extended biparental care to their young. Both members of a breeding pair build the nest, incubate the eggs and feed and protect the chicks for up to 10 months after hatching.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Protecting: Male, Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Male, Female, Protecting: Male, Female); post-independence association with parents

Nests may contain eggs from late February to late May in Florida (mean laying date mid-March), mainly in April in mid-U.S., and primarily mid-May in the north. Both sexes, in turn, incubate usually 2 eggs 28-30 days. Young are tended by both parents, begin flying at about 2 months, remain with parents until following year. Usually only one chick survives to fledging.

Females usually renest if a clutch lost or abandoned (interval between clutches 18-20 days in Florida, Nesbitt 1988). Individuals may pair as early as age 3 years, but more commonly at 5-6 years. In mid-continental North America, most recruitment is by cranes older than 7 years.

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 3 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

Download FASTA File

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 3
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1

Sandhill cranes are protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act and CITES Appendix II. Two subspecies of sandhill cranes, Grus canadensis nesiotes (Cuba sandhill crane) and Grus canadensis pulla (Mississippi sandhill crane), are endangered in the United States. Populations of this species are not growing very fast because each breeding pair only raises one or two chicks each year. Also, sandhill cranes are hunted in several midwestern states. Protection of wetland habitats is very important in order for sandhill cranes to survive.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: endangered; no special status

CITES: appendix ii

State of Michigan List: no special status

Information on state- and province-level protection status of animals in the United States and Canada is available at NatureServe, although recent changes in status may not be included.

The Cuban and Mississippi sandhill cranes are federally listed as Endangered [149].

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

Sandhill cranes are protected under the U.S. Migratory Bird Act and CITES Appendix II. Two subspecies of sandhill cranes, Grus canadensis nesiotes (Cuba sandhill crane) and Grus canadensis pulla (Mississippi sandhill crane), are federally endangered in the United States. Low reproduction rates limit population recovery in this species, especially by the mid-continent population, which is subject to hunting. Reintroduction of captive-reared birds has been instrumental in maintaining population size. Protection of wetland habitats is also essential for the survival of this species.

US Migratory Bird Act: protected

US Federal List: endangered; no special status

CITES: appendix ii

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Large range; stable or increasing in most areas.

Global Short Term Trend: Relatively stable (=10% change)

Comments: Great Lakes population increased greatly in the 1970s and 1980s (Johnsgard 1991, Heckert 1992). Breeding populations of greater sandhill crane in Canada evidently were increasing in the 1970s (Stephen, 1979 COSEWIC report). Mid-continent population appears to have stabilized following dramatic increases in the early 1980s (USFWS 1996). Annual surveys of the Rocky Mountain population suggest a relatively stable population since 1984 (USFWS 1996). Low recruitment in California/Oregon may eventually lead to a population decline (California Department of Fish and Game 1990). Population that breeds in southern and southeastern Oregon and northeastern California is the only population of greater sandhill cranes that is declining in at least some parts of its range (Johnsgard 1991). Population at Malheur NWR in Oregon declined from 236 breeding pairs in 1975 to 168 in 1989, increased to previous level in mid-1990s (due to predator control) (Littlefield 1995).

Comments: Threatened by loss and degradation of wetland habitats. Collisions with powerlines have been noted as a significant source of mortality in the Rocky Mountains. Breeding population in southern and southeastern Oregon and northeastern California is threatened by high levels of nest and chick predation by ravens, coyotes, and raccoons, though predator control efforts have alleviated the threat (Johnsgard 1991, Littlefield 1995). Breeding populations disappear from areas of heavy human use.

Management Requirements: Current management of crane roosting habitat in Nebraska includes maintenance of water flows and costly mechanical removal of woody vegetation (see Folk and Tacha 1990). See California Department of Fish and Game (1990) for a brief summary of habitat protection efforts in California, where most wintering sites of large sandhill cranes are in private ownership and the majority of the nocturnal roosts are on privately owned waterfowl hunting areas (Pogson and Lindstedt 1991). See Littlefield and Paullin (1990) for information on the effect of land management on nesting success in Oregon.

Under conditions of low visibility, sandhill cranes are very susceptible to collisions with powerlines (Biosystems Analysis 1989). In Nebraska, yellow aviation balls were effective in reducing collisions with powerlines (Morkill and Anderson 1991).

See Wheeler and Lewis (1972) for trapping/banding techniques. See Zwank and Wilson (1987) for information on successful release of captive, parent-reared cranes of endangered Mississippi subspecies PULLA.

Sandhill cranes feed on crops where they are available.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Sandhill cranes feed on insects and rodents that may damage crops.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Sandhill cranes feed on crops where they are available.

Negative Impacts: crop pest

Sandhill cranes feed on insects and rodents that may damage crops.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Comments: McIvor and Conover (1994) noted increasing depredation complaints from farmers growing corn and small grains in Utah. Winter depredation on alfalfa and chile has been a problem in the middle Rio Grande Valley, New Mexico; crane hunting season was extended to alleviate the problem (1993, End. Sp. Tech. Bull. 18(4):21, 26). See Buller (1979) and Johnson (1979) for extent and impact of hunting in Central Flyway.

Crop depredation is a concern in many areas; sandhill cranes have been eating crops at least since Europeans settled North America. Individual sandhill cranes wintering in western Texas removed as much as 1 lb (470 g) of sorghum/day [62]. At spring staging areas, daily rates of lesser sandhill crane weight gain and fat deposition averaged 0.6 to 0.8 ounces (18-25 g) for males and 0.5 to 0.6 ounces (13 -16 g) for females [70]. The consumption of grains often prompts illegal shooting ([78,151], review by 115), and legislation in some states allows hunting or management of sandhill cranes in response to crop depredation (review by [124]). In some areas, sandhill cranes may compete with large flocks of other bird species, including the Canada goose and lesser snow goose, for agricultural grains [28]. One management action to mitigate crop depredation is to plant crops on public lands specifically for the use of sandhill cranes, particularly in areas of population concentrations like staging and wintering grounds (review by [150]).