Peromyscus maniculatus

Deermice rarely leave their homes during the day, but feed opportunistically at night on whatever is available: seeds, nuts, fruit, berries, insects and other animal matter, and whatever they find tasty in houses. Deermice have the most extensive range of any North American rodent, and are found in almost every kind of habitat. They climb easily, tunnel through snow or scurry about on its surface, and find shelter everywhere from mattresses to tree cavities to burrows in the ground. Populations fluctuate in cycles of three to five years, sometimes correlated with the amount of food available. The Deermouse is important as a laboratory animal, and can be a factor in the spread of some human diseases, including hantavirus, plague, and Lyme disease.

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Mammal Species of the World

Deer mice are common in North America. They are distributed from the northern tree line in Alaska and Canada southward to central Mexico. They are absent from the southeastern United States and some coastal areas of Mexico within this range.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

Deer mice occur throughout most of North America and are abundant in
most areas.  Deer mouse is the most widely distributed Peromyscus
species [51].  Deer mice are distributed
from Quebec and New Brunswick
west to Yukon Territory and southeast Alaska; south to Baja California
and through the Sierra Madre to southern Mexico; south in central Texas
to the Gulf of Mexico; and south in the Appalachian Mountains to
northern Georgia [57,127].

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

    1  Northern Pacific Border
    2  Cascade Mountains
    3  Southern Pacific Border
    4  Sierra Mountains
    5  Columbia Plateau
    6  Upper Basin and Range
    7  Lower Basin and Range
    8  Northern Rocky Mountains
    9  Middle Rocky Mountains
   10  Wyoming Basin
   11  Southern Rocky Mountains
   12  Colorado Plateau
   13  Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14  Great Plains
   15  Black Hills Uplift
   16  Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

AK AR CA CO CT DE GA ID IL IN IA KS KY ME MD MA MI MN MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM NY ND OH OK OR PA RI SD TN TX UT VT WA WV WI WY DC

AB BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PQ SK YT

MEXICO

This is the most widespread North American rodent. It is found throughout southern Canada, the United States, and north and central Mexico, including Baja California. It is absent from the Atlantic and Gulf of Mexico coastal plains of the United States, but its range does extend to the coast in east Texas.

Peromyscus maniculatus is a North American species. It is distributed from the northern tree line in Alaska and Canada southward to central Mexico. It is absent from the southeastern United States and some coastal areas of Mexico within this range (Baker 1983).

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: Occurs in most of North America except most of Alaska, northern Canada, western and southeastern Mexico (occurs south to southern Baja California and through central Mexico to Colima and Oaxaca), southeastern U.S., and Atlantic coastal plain (see map in Carleton 1989).

Deer mice have small bodies. They weigh between 10 and 24 grams and they are typically 119 to 222 mm long, no longer than mus musculus. Tail length varies in different populations and ranges from 45 mm to 105 mm. Deer mice that live in woodlands are typically larger and have larger tails and feet than deer mice that live in prairies. Deer mice have round and slender bodies. The head has a pointed nose with large, black, beady eyes. The ears are large and have little fur covering them. The whiskers are long and prominent. Deer mice have shorter forelimbs than hind limbs.

Deer mice are grayish to reddish brown with white underparts. The fur is short, soft, and dense. The finely-haired tail is dark on top and light on the bottom, with a sharp division between the two colors. This differs from Peromyscus leucopus, where the separation of the two colors on the tail is less distinct. There are other characteristics that help distinguish deer mice from the similar white-footed mice. Deer mice generally have hind feet that are 22 mm or less, while white-footed mice usually have hind feet 22 mm or more. Also, deer mice are more richly colored with a brownish or tawny coat, whereas white-footed mice tend to be more pinkish-buff or grayish, with scattered dark hairs. These characteristics vary depending on location, however, and in some areas the two species are extremely hard to tell apart based on outward appearance.

Range mass: 10 to 24 g.

Range length: 119 to 222 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; heterothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.219 W.

Peromyscus maniculatus has a small body size, no longer than that of a house mouse. It is typically 119 to 222 mm long and weighs between 10 and 24 grams. Tail length is variable in different populations and ranges from 45 mm to 105 mm (Baker 1983). Woodland forms are typically larger and have larger tails and feet than prairie forms (LTER 1995). Peromyscus maniculatus has a round and slender body. The head has a pointed nose with large, black, beady eyes. The ears are large and have little fur covering them. The vibrissae are long and prominent. Peromyscus maniculatus has shorter forelimbs than hind limbs (Baker 1983).

Peromyscus maniculatus is grayish to reddish brown with white underparts. The fur is short, soft, and dense. The finely-haired tail is bicolored, the darker top half and the lighter bottom sharply differentiated. This differs from the other species of Peromyscus (Peromyscus leucopus), in which the separation of the two colors is less distinct. There are other characteristics that help distinguish P. maniculatus from the similar P. leucopus. Peromyscus maniculatus generally has hind feet that are 22 mm or less, while P. leucopus usually has hind feet 22 mm or more. Also, Peromyscus maniculatus is more richly colored with a brownish or tawny pelage, whereas P. leucopus tends to be more pinkish-buff or grayish, with scattered dark hairs (LTER 1995). These characteristics vary geographically, however, and in some areas the two species are extremely difficult to distinguish based on external morphology.

Like most murids, Peromyscus maniculatus has a dental formula of 1/1 0/0 0/0 3/3. Its molars are low-crowned and cuspidate. The third upper molar is less wide than the first two, while that of Peromyscus leucopus is approximately as wide as the first two (Baker 1983).

Range mass: 10 to 24 g.

Range length: 119 to 222 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; heterothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: sexes alike

Average basal metabolic rate: 0.219 W.

Length: 22 cm

Weight: 33 grams

Length:
Range: 120-225 mm

Weight:
Range: 10-30 g

Deer mice live in many different habitats throughout their range. They can be found in alpine habitats, northern boreal forest, desert, grassland, brushland, agricultural fields, southern montane woodland, and dry upper tropical habitats. Also, deer mice are found on boreal, temperate, and tropical islands. However, their most common habitats are prairies, bushy areas, and woodlands.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural

More info for the terms: climax, cover, density, litter, presence, shrub, shrubs, succession, tree

Habitat Preferences:  In some forests and woodlands, disturbance appears
to favor deer mice although they are also common in climax (old-growth)
associations [3].  In Oregon and Washington Douglas-fir stands, deer
mouse abundance was negatively correlated with proportion of coarse
fragments in the soil.  In Washington the highest deer mouse numbers
occurred in moderately moist, old-growth Douglas-fir, but the second
highest population was in a clearcut [26].  In western Oregon deer mouse
capture rates decreased substantially with distance from streams in
mature Douglas-fir forest [81].  In the northern Sierra Nevada deer mice
are primarily forest-dwelling and are not as abundant in brushlands.
However, this differential distribution varies with elevation.  At 2,200
feet (670 m) elevation, deer mice were less common in forests than
brush, from 3,500 to 5,000 feet (1,067-1,524 m) elevation deer mice were
more common in forests than brush, and above 5,000 feet (1,524 m) deer
mice were the only mouse species in sagebrush (Artemisia spp.)
communities.  They were less abundant in forests above 5,000 feet than
in forests at lower elevations [60].

Preference for disturbed habitats has also been reported for some
sagebrush and grassland communities.  In Nevada big sagebrush-antelope
bitterbrush range, deer mouse captures were positively associated with
relatively high amounts of litter, shorter shrubs, and greater shrub
intersection [87].  In western South Dakota deer mice are associated
with black-tailed prairie dog (Cynomys ludovicianus) towns, occurring in
and near towns in higher abundance than in surrounding grasslands [104].
In grasslands and adjacent vegetative communities, deer mice are usually
more abundant in early seral and/or severely disturbed areas than in
undisturbed communities [37].  In Nebraska sandhills prairie deer mice
were found more often in grass-forb communities than in sagebrush,
grass, or on open ground, but were common in all types [74].  Geier and
Best [45] ranked the deer mouse as selective of particular habitats in
Iowa riparian areas; deer mice were positively associated with forb
cover and negatively associated with mean length of downed logs, plant
species richness, vertical stratification, and grass cover.

A lack of preference for habitat features has been described for deer
mice in several communities.  On the Oregon coast deer mice occupy all
habitats from beach to forest [79]; a similarly wide distribution of
deer mice was also found on islands off the coast of British Columbia
[9,77].  In Colorado deer mice were equally prevalent in stands
dominated by aspens (Populus spp.) and stands dominated by conifers
[102].  In Illinois deer mouse abundance was not correlated with any of
the tested habitat parameters:  bare ground, annual cover, perennial
cover, grass cover, woody vegetation, and vegetative density [3].  In
New Hampshire forests deer mice were captured in nearly all areas,
showing no preference for a particular vegetative community [47].  On
Mount Desert Island, Maine, deer mice were found in both coniferous and
deciduous forests [40].

Habitat preferences that are not apparent at the species level may be
resolved by closer attention to taxonomy.  Different deer mouse
subspecies are strongly associated with habitat parameters.  For
example, the prairie deer mouse avoids wooded areas, even if the surface
layer is grass-dominated.  It is likely that deer mouse subspecies
replace other deer mouse subspecies over the course of succession [3].

Logging Effects:  Logging frequently has a positive effect on deer mouse
populations although some studies report no change or negative effects
on deer mouse abundance.  Increased cover in slash and increased
production of seed by annuals probably contribute to the positive
effect.  The following studies all report increased deer mouse
populations following logging or logging and slash-burning:

Oregon:  in clearcuts in Douglas-fir forests; deer mice were present
   in all successional stages with no strong correlation between
   habitat features and deer mouse abundance [25,44,58,59]
British Columbia:  in 15- to 17-year old clearcuts in Pacific silver
   fir (Abies amabilis)-western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)-mountain
   hemlock (T. mertensiana); deer mice were the most abundant rodents
   in all stages [126]
northwestern California: in clearcut and slash-burned Douglas-fir [123]
Wyoming:  in lodgepole pine, Douglas-fir, and climax Engelmann spruce
   (Picea engelmannii) stands [19]
central Colorado:  in small circular clearcuts in Engelmann spruce-subalpine
   fir (Abies lasiocarpa) stands [103]
Southwest:  in ponderosa pine; deer mouse abundance increased directly with
   increased amounts of slash [22]
New Mexico and Arizona:  after fall thinning of pinyon-juniper woodlands;
   there was a negative correlation between juniper stocking density and deer
   mouse abundance [2]
Arizona:  deer mouse abundance was positively correlated with slash
   in pinyon-juniper woodlands [68] in harvested ponderosa pine where
   cull logs and large diameter limbs were left scattered rather than
   piled [46]
West Virginia:  in clearcut plots in coniferous forest [66]

The following studies report no change or decreased deer mouse numbers
with logging:

West Virginia :  in clearcuts in deciduous forests; although deer mice
   decreased after logging, they were the most abundant  rodent on
   all plots [66]; deer mice were slightly more abundant in older hardwood
   stands than in other stages including recently harvested areas, but
   were present in all seres [16]
Alaska:  deer mice were more numerous on timbered habitat than in
   clearcuts; however, traplines in clearcuts were 2,000 feet (600 m)
   from the nearest tree seed source [53]

Grazing Effects:  In northern Nevada and southern Idaho high elevation
riparian areas within big sagebrush habitat, there were more deer mice
in grazed areas than in ungrazed areas on a sagebrush-dominated study
site; however, on an aspen and willow (Salix spp.)-dominated study site
there were more deer mice on the ungrazed site than the grazed site
[23].  In another study there was little difference in deer mouse
abundance between grazed and ungrazed plots in big sagebrush-antelope
bitterbrush/Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis) range in Nevada [87].  In
northeastern Colorado riparian areas, deer mice were negatively
associated with grass cover, litter, and shrub presence [99].  In New
Mexico deer mice were common in both grazed and ungrazed montane
riparian areas [118].  Kaufman and others [62] predicted that
grassland-inhabiting, fire-positive wildlife species such as the deer
mouse would have higher relative abundance in moderately- to
heavily-grazed grasslands than on lightly-grazed or ungrazed grasslands
because of the lesser amount of litter on heavily-grazed areas [63].
Deer mouse abundance was higher on grazed sagebrush/grassland than on
ungrazed sites [11].

Other Vegetation Management:  Application of herbicide to control shrubs
and weeds had little effect on deer mouse population in logged western
hemlock-western red-cedar-Douglas-fir plots in British Columbia [117].

Home Range:  Stickel [114] compiled studies on deer mouse home ranges
across North America.  Most studies concluded that the size of the deer
mouse home range was directly related to food supply, and varies with
season.  There is often, but not always, an inverse relationship between
deer mouse population density and home range size.  The smallest average
home range, 0.08 acre (0.032 ha), was recorded in Arkansas young oak
(Quercus spp.)-pine forest, and the largest average, 4.66 acres (1.2
ha), was in New Mexico mesquite (Prosopis spp.)  range [114].  Deer mice
use and maintain several home sites or refuges within the home range.
Prairie deer mice travel over a different area within the home range on
successive nights, returning to the nest on the same path used for the
outward trip.  The extent of travel and intensity of use of the home
range varies with habitat change and loss or gain of conspecific
neighbors.  Home range fidelity is fairly strong.  At least half of deer
mice on an Alberta study site that were displaced more than 5,000 feet
(1,500 m) from the capture site returned to the home area [119].  Adults
shift home ranges in response to habitat alteration or disturbance.  One
adult female, caught four times within a 75-foot (26 m) radius, shifted
her home range 1,000 feet (305 m) [114].

Deer mice have considerable tolerance of conspecifics; individuals have
overlapping ranges and sometimes associate in nests, particularly in
winter [5,72].  In South Dakota grasslands deer mice congregate in
groups of 15 or more during winter [37].

Population Density:  Normal population densities in Canada range from
one to seven deer mice per acre (1-25/ha) [5].  Dalquest [28] estimated
an average deer mouse population density of 400 per acre (0.04 ha) in
thickly forested ravines in western Washington.

More info for the term: frequency

Deer mice are nearly ubiquitous in North America [57]; they inhabit a
wide variety of plant communities including grasslands, brushy areas,
woodlands, and forests [127].  In a survey of small mammals on 29 sites
in subalpine forests in Colorado and Wyoming, the deer mouse had the
highest frequency of occurrence; however, it was not always the most
abundant small mammal [95].  Deer mice were trapped in four of six
forest communities in eastern Washington and northern Idaho, and they
were the only rodent in ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa) savanna [55].
In northern New England deer mice are present in both coniferous and
deciduous forests [29].  Deer mice are often the only Peromyscus species
in northern boreal forest [3].  Subspecies differ in their use of plant
communities and vegetation structures.  There are two main groups of
deer mouse:  the prairie deer mouse and the woodland or forest deer mouse
group (typified by P. m. gracilis but consisting of many subspecies)
[127].

In the following states, deer mice were listed in the specified
vegetative community as the most common or most frequent rodent or small
mammal:

Oregon:  Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) [25]
eastern Washington/northern Idaho:  big sagebrush (Artemisia tridentata),
   grasslands (2 types), coniferous forest (4 types) [131]
eastern Washington:  cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)-dominated grasslands [92]
southeastern Idaho:  big sagebrush [97], big sagebrush/crested
  wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum) [67], Russian-thistle (Salsola kali),
  crested wheatgrass, and fenceline [48]
Nevada:  pinyon (Pinus spp.)-juniper (Juniperus spp.) [80], big
   sagebrush-antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata), and
   curlleaf mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) [87]
Utah:  pinyon-juniper [4]
southeastern Montana:  buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides), snowberry
   (Symphoricarpos spp.)-dominated riparian areas, big sagebrush,
   and ponderosa pine [76]
Wyoming:  lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) [132]
Colorado:  pinyon-juniper [36]
Southwest:  ponderosa pine [22]
Arizona:  ponderosa pine [46]
West Virginia:  red spruce (Picea rubens) and red spruce-northern
   hardwoods [66]

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

   Deer mice occur in nearly all SRM cover types except those
   in the extreme southeastern United States.

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

   Deer mice occur in nearly all SAF cover types except those
   in the extreme southeastern United States

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

FRES10 White-red-jack pine
FRES11 Spruce-fir
FRES12 Longleaf-slash pine
FRES13 Loblolly-shortleaf pine
FRES14 Oak-pine
FRES15 Oak-hickory
FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood
FRES18 Maple-beech-birch
FRES19 Aspen-birch
FRES20 Douglas-fir
FRES21 Ponderosa pine
FRES22 Western white pine
FRES23 Fir-spruce
FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce
FRES25 Larch
FRES26 Lodgepole pine
FRES27 Redwood
FRES28 Western hardwoods
FRES29 Sagebrush
FRES30 Desert shrub
FRES31 Shinnery
FRES32 Texas savanna
FRES33 Southwestern shrubsteppe
FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub
FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES36 Mountain grasslands
FRES37 Mountain meadows
FRES38 Plains grasslands
FRES39 Prairie
FRES40 Desert grasslands
FRES41 Wet grasslands
FRES42 Annual grasslands
FRES44 Alpine

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

   Deer mice occur in nearly all Kuchler types except those
   in the extreme southeastern United States.

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Peromyscus maniculatus occupies many different ecological zones throughout its range. Deer mice can be found in alpine habitats, northern boreal forest, desert, grassland, brushland, agricultural fields, southern montane woodland, and arid upper tropical habitats. Also, P. maniculatus is found on boreal, temperate, and tropical islands. However, its most common habitats are prairies, bushy areas, and woodlands (King 1968).

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; forest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural

Deer mice inhabit nearly all types of dry-land habitats within their range: short-grass prairies, grass-sage communities, coastal sage scrub, sand dunes, wet prairies, upland mixed and cedar forests, deciduous forests, ponderosa pine forests, other coniferous forests, mixed deciduous-evergreen forests, juniper/piñon forests, and other habitats (Holbrook, 1979; Kaufman and Kaufman, 1989; Ribble and Samson, 1987; Wolff and Hurlbutt, 1982). Few studies have found microhabitat features that distinguish the deer mouse, and some studies have come to different conclusions regarding habitat structure preferences (Ribble and Samson, 1987). For example, Vickery (1981) found that deer mice appeared to prefer areas with moderate to heavy ground and mid-story cover to more open ground areas, whereas others have found more deer mice in more open than in more vegetated areas (see Kaufman and Kaufman, 1989).

Comments: Uses a wide variety of upland and riparian habitats from open areas and brushlands to coniferous and deciduous forests. Nest sites as varied as habitat. May be placed in buildings, burrows, under logs, in thick vegetation, or in tree cavities.

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Home range reportedly averages 1 ha or less, may range from a few hundred to a few thousand sq m, depending on circumstances. In New Brunswick, a tagged subadult male was captured at locations 1.77 km apart after a period of 2 weeks in September, suggesting that dispersal may extend at least this far (Bowman et al. 1999). In Kansas, individual Peromyscus maniculatus were captured at trap sites up to 1.32 km apart (Rehmeier et al. 2004).

Deer mice are omnivorous. They eat a wide variety of plant and animal matter depending on what is available, including Insecta and other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, flowers, nuts, and other plant products. Deer mice sometimes eat their own feces, a practice called coprophagy. In cooler climates, deer mice hide food in secret stockpiles during the autumn months.

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Deer mice are omnivorous; the main dietary items usually include
arthropods and seeds.  Deer mice also consume nuts, berries and other
small fruits, and fungi.  The prairie deer mouse prefers seeds of
foxtail (Alopecurus spp.) and wheat (Triticum aestivum), caterpillars,
and corn (Zea mays) where available [127].  In southeastern Montana deer
mice in big sagebrush/grasslands consumed arthropods and seeds; the
proportion changed with the year of study [107].

In Colorado pinyon-juniper woodlands 77 percent of the deer mouse diet
was pinyon seeds when the seeds were available.  True pinyon (Pinus
edulis) seeds were preferred over Mexican pinyon (P. cembroides) seeds
[36].  In the Pacific Northwest deer mice consumed over 200 Douglas-fir
seeds each in one night [41].  In southeastern Idaho crested wheatgrass
seeds are important in deer mouse diets when available; when they are
not available caterpillars are the most important item.  Availability of
seeds and caterpillars varies seasonally [67].  In northern Sierra
Nevada brushfields, deer mice consumed the largest proportion of seeds
in January, the largest proportion of fruits in October and November,
the largest proportion of arthropods in April, June, and July, and the
largest proportion of leaves (though never more than 20 percent by
volume) in April [61].  Kelrick and MacMahon [65] reported that antelope
bitterbrush seed was the most nutritious seed available in sagebrush
steppe, and big sagebrush seed the least nutritious.  Deer mice
exhibited a preference for antelope bitterbrush seeds (in penned feeding
trials) even if the deer mice had been trapped in other vegetative
communities [33].

Deer mice cache food in hollow logs or other protected areas [127].  A
single mouse may cache up to 3.2 quarts (3 L) of food for winter use [85].

Peromyscus maniculatus is omnivorous. It eats a wide variety of plant and animal matter depending on what is available, including insects and other invertebrates, seeds, fruits, flowers, nuts, and other plant products. Deer mice sometimes eat their own feces (coprophagy). In cooler climates, deer mice cache food in secret granaries during the autumn months (Baker 1983).

Animal Foods: insects; terrestrial non-insect arthropods

Plant Foods: seeds, grains, and nuts; fruit; flowers

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Primary Diet: omnivore

Deer mice are omnivorous and highly opportunistic, which leads to substantial regional and seasonal variation in their diet. They eat principally seeds, arthropods, some green vegetation, roots, fruits, and fungi as available (Johnson, 1961; Menhusen, 1963; Whitaker, 1966). The nonseed plant materials provide a significant proportion of the deer mouse's daily water requirements (MacMillen and Garland, 1989). Food digestibility and assimilation for most of their diet have been estimated to be as high as 88 percent (Montgomery, 1989). Deer mice may cache food during the fall and winter in the more northern parts of their range (Barry, 1976; Wolff, 1989). They are nocturnal and emerge shortly after dark to forage for several hours (Marten, 1973).

Comments: Eats arthropods, other invertebrates, fruit, nuts/seeds, green plant material, and fungi (Wolfe et al. 1985). Insects, worms, and snails most important in summer. May store food.

Deer mice are important for spreading seeds of many types of plants and the spores of fungi. They are also an important food source for various predators.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Deer mice are a staple in the diet of a wide variety of animals. Night-hunting predators, including serpentes, strigiformes, and various carnivora, are their biggest threat.

Known Predators:

• snakes (Serpentes)
• owls (Strigiformes)
• weasels (Mustela)
• foxes (Vulpes)
• coyotes (Canis_latrans)
• bobcats (Lynx_rufus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Deer mice are important prey for snakes (Viperidae), owls (Strigidae),
mink (Mustela vison), marten (Martes americana) and other weasels
(Mustelidae), skunks (Mephites and Spilogale spp.), bobcat (Lynx rufus),
domestic cat (Felis cattus), coyote (Canis latrans), foxes (Vulpes and
Urocyon spp.), and ringtail (Bassariscus astutus) [79].

Peromyscus maniculatus helps disperse the seeds of a number of species of plants, and also the spores of mycorrhizal fungi. In addition, deer mice are a food source for a wide variety of animals at higher trophic levels.

Ecosystem Impact: disperses seeds

Deer mice are a staple in the diet of a wide variety of animals. Night-hunting predators, including snakes, owls, and various carnivorous mammals, are their biggest threat.

Known Predators:

• snakes (Serpentes)
• owls (Strigiformes)
• weasels (Mustela)
• foxes (Vulpes)
• coyotes (Canis latrans)
• bobcats (Lynx rufus)

Anti-predator Adaptations: cryptic

Peromyscus maniculatus is prey of:
Soricidae
Felidae
Strix varia
Mustela
Strigiformes
Accipitridae
Canis latrans
Lynx rufus
Vulpes vulpes
Athene cunicularia
Bubo virginianus
Asio otus
Tyto alba
Buteo swainsoni

Based on studies in:
USA: Illinois (Forest)
USA: Montana (Tundra)
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Peromyscus maniculatus preys on:
wood
bark
roots
alpine vegetation
invertebrates
Artemisia frigida
Bouteloua gracilis
Kochia
seeds
fungus forb/shrub
lichen forb/shrub
Coleoptera
Diptera
Papilionoidea
Orthoptera
Araneae
misc. fur
fin
feather
Arthropoda
Certhia americana

Based on studies in:
USA: Illinois (Forest)
USA: Montana (Tundra)
USA: California, Cabrillo Point (Grassland)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

More info for the terms: litter, mast

Deer mice are active year-round, although activity is minimal in cold
and/or wet weather.  They are nocturnal [79].

Breeding Season:  In most parts of their range deer mice breed from
March to October [86].  Deer mouse breeding tends to be determined more
by food availability than by season per se.  In Plumas County,
California, deer mice bred through December in good mast (both soft and
hard masts) years but ceased breeding in June of a poor mast year [3].
Deer mice breed throughout the year in the Willamette Valley, but in
other areas on the Oregon coast there is usually a lull during the
wettest and coldest weather [79].  In southeastern Arizona at least
one-third of captured deer mice were in breeding condition in winter
[17].  In Virginia breeding peaks occur from April to June and from
September to October [130].

Nesting:  Female deer mice construct nests using a variety of materials
including grasses, roots, mosses, wool, thistledown, and various
artificial fibers [79].

Gestation, Litter Size, and Productivity:  Peromyscus species gestation
periods range from 22 to 26 days [72].  Typical litters are composed of
three to five young; litter size ranges from one to nine young.  Most
female deer mice have more than one litter per year [79].  Three or four
litters per year is probably typical; captive deer mice have borne as
many as 14 litters in one year.  Males usually live with the family and
help care for the young [86].

Development of Young:  Deer mice are born blind, naked, and helpless;
development is rapid.  Young deer mice have full coats by the end of the
second week; their eyes open between 13 and 19 days; and they are fully
furred and independent in only a few weeks [79].  Females lactate for 27
to 34 days after giving birth; most young are weaned at about 18 to 24
days.  Young reach adult size at about 6 weeks and continue to gain
weight slowly thereafter [72].

Age of first estrus averages about 48 days; the earliest recorded was 23
days.  The youngest wild female to produce a litter was 55 days old; it
was estimated that conception had occurred when she was about 32 days
old [72].

Dispersal:  Deer mouse pups usually disperse after weaning and before
the birth of the next litter, when they are reaching sexual maturity.
Occasionally juveniles remain in the natal area, particularly when
breeding space is limited [126].  Most deer mice travel less than 500
feet (152 m) from the natal area to establish their own home range
[114].

Longevity and Mortality:  Most deer mice in the wild have very short
life spans, usually less than 1 year [79].  O'Farrell [88] reported that
a population of deer mice in big sagebrush/grasslands had completely
turned over (e.g., there were no surviving adults of the initial
population) over the course of one summer.  One captive male deer mouse
lived 32 months [79], and there is a report of a forest deer mouse that
lived 8 years in captivity (another mouse was fertile until almost 6
years of age) [31].

Territorial behavior is most prevalent at high population densities.

Population density generally is lowest in spring, highest in fall (sometimes up to about 30/ha; densities as high as 109 and 163 per ha have been reported, Kirkland and Layne 1989).

In Kansas, populations increased initially following grassland fire, decreased in subsequent years (Kaufman et al. 1988, Clark and Kaufman 1990). In Virginia, populations were highest in the year following a large mast crop (Wolff 1996, J. Mamm. 77:850-856).

Deer mice have large eyes and ears as well as keen noses and long whiskers for perceiving their environment. They communicate by grooming one another, posturing with their bodies, producing scent, and making a variety of squeaky noises. Sometimes when disturbed they drum their front paws rapidly up and down against a hard surface. This may serve as a warning signal to other deer mice.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Deer mice perceive their environment through keen senses of hearing, touch, smell, and vision. They communicate using tactile, visual, chemical, and auditory signals. They groom one another, posture, emit pheromones, mark their territories with scent, and make a variety of squeaky vocalizations. Sometimes when disturbed they drum their front paws rapidly up and down against a hard surface; this may serve as a warning signal to other deer mice.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Primarily nocturnal. Active throughout the year.

In captivity, deer mice can live as long as eight years. However, in the wild, life expectancy is much shorter, usually less than a year.

Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 8 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 1 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: <1 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 8.3 years.

In captivity, P. maniculatus can live as long as eight years. However, in the wild, life expectancy is much shorter, usually less than a year (Baker 1983).

Range lifespan
Status: captivity: 8 (high) years.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 1 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: <1 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 8.3 years.

Maximum longevity: 8.3 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, most animals probably live less than 2 years but in the laboratory may live up to 8.3 years (Ronald Nowak 1999).

Deer mice are polygynous, meaning that male deer mice each mate with more than one female.

Mating System: polygynous ; polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Females deer mice can have many litters in a year. In the wild, reproduction may not occur during winter or other unfavorable seasons. Females are able to become pregnant again shortly after giving birth. The pregnancy of a female deer mouse that is not nursing young lasts from 22.4 to 25.5 days and the pregnancy of a female deer mouse that is nursing young lasts 24.1 to 30.6 days. Deer mice may have litters containing from one to eleven young with typical litters containing four, five, or six babies. Litter size increases each time a female deer mouse gives birth until the fifth or sixth litter and decreases afterwards.

Deer mice are very helpless at birth but develop quickly. At birth, each baby has a mass of about 1.5 g. The young are born hairless with wrinkled, pink skin, closed eyes, and folded over ears. Juvenile hair begins to develop on the second day after birth. On the third day, the ears unfold with the ear canal opening on the tenth day. Eyes open on the fifteenth day, and the young are weaned between day 25 and 35.

Deer mice can reproduce when they are 35 days old, but they usually breed for the first time at 49 days.

Breeding interval: Deer mice breed every three to four weeks during the warmer months and less frequently during the winter.

Breeding season: Deer mice breed year round, but most breeding occurs during the warmer months.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 11.

Average number of offspring: 4 to 6.

Range gestation period: 22.4 to 30.6 days.

Range weaning age: 25 to 35 days.

Average time to independence: 35 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 35 (low) days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 49 days.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous ; post-partum estrous

Average birth mass: 2 g.

Average number of offspring: 5.

Like all female eutheria, deer mice provide nourishment to their young before birth through the placenta. After the young are born, mother deer mice produce milk for their offspring. While nursing, the mother carries her young clinging to her nipples or one at a time in her mouth. Once weaned, the young usually leave the nest and become independent of their mother, although sometimes the mother will tolerate their presence for longer periods. Often when the mother has a second litter, she forces the first litter out of the nest.

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Peromyscus maniculatus is polygynous (Kirkland and Layne 1989).

Mating System: polygynous ; polygynandrous (promiscuous)

Female Peromyscus maniculatus are seasonally polyestrous with an estrous cycle of about five days. In the wild, reproduction may not occur during winter or other unfavorable seasons (LTER 1998). Females exhibit post-partum estrus and are able to become pregnant shortly after giving birth (Baker 1983). The gestation period of a nonlactating female deer mouse lasts from 22.4 to 25.5 days and 24.1 to 30.6 days in a lactating female (Kirkland and Layne 1989). Litter size is highly variable between populations. Peromyscus maniculatus may have litters containing from one to eleven young with typical litters containing four, five, or six individuals (Baker 1983). Litter size increases with each birth until the fifth or sixth litter and decreases thereafter (LTER 1998).

Peromyscus maniculatus is very altricial at birth but develops quickly. At birth, the deer mouse has a mass of about 1.5 g. The young are born hairless with wrinkled, pink skin, closed eyes, and folded over ear pinnae. Juvenile hair begins to develop on the second day after birth. On the third day, the pinnae unfold with the ear canal opening on the tenth day. Eyes open on the fifteenth day, and the young are weaned between day 25 and 35.

Conception can occur as early as 35 days, but the first estrus typically occurs around 49 days (King 1968).

Breeding interval: Deer mice breed every three to four weeks during the warmer months and less frequently during the winter.

Breeding season: Deer mice breed year round, but most breeding occurs during the warmer months.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 11.

Average number of offspring: 4 to 6.

Range gestation period: 22.4 to 30.6 days.

Range weaning age: 25 to 35 days.

Average time to independence: 35 days.

Range age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 35 (low) days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 49 days.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous ; post-partum estrous

Average birth mass: 2 g.

Average number of offspring: 5.

While nursing, the mother carries her young clinging to her nipples or one at a time in her mouth (Baker 1983). Once weaned, the young usually leave the nest and become independent of their mother, although sometimes the mother will tolerate their presence for longer periods. Often when the mother has a second litter, she forces the first litter out of the nest (King 1968).

Parental Investment: altricial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female)

Breeding season shorter in north and at high elevations than elsewhere. In the northeastern U.S., reproduction is curtailed in fall and winter. See Kirkland and Layne (1989) for information on breeding seasons in different areas. Gestation 23 days. Litter size averages 5-6 in north, 4.5 in south, multiple litters/year (1-2 in north, more in south). Young independent in about 16-25 days (varies geographically). Young of year may attain sexual maturity by 2 months, or may not breed in some areas. Some litters fathered by more than 1 male; mating system ranges from promiscuity to facultative monogamy (Kirkland and Layne 1989).

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 0
Specimens with Barcodes: 110
Species With Barcodes: 1

Deer mice are abundant, often among the most abundant mice of certain areas. Densities can reach 11 mice per acre. Many factors including availablity of food, water, and nest sites are thought to affect how many deer mice can live in an area. However, only the availability of food has been studied in enough detail to show it has an effect on population density.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Justification

History

• 1996
  Lower Risk/least concern
  (Baillie and Groombridge 1996)

Peromyscus maniculatus is an abundant species, often among the most abundant mouse species of certain areas (LTER 1998). Densities can reach 11 mice per acre (Baker 1983). Quantity and quality of foods, availability of water, number and distribution of nest sites, architecture of living and dead vegetation, and depth and density of litter are some ecological factors proposed to affect the density of P. maniculatus. However, only the availability of food has been studied in enough detail to show it has an effect on population density (Kirkland and Layne 1989).

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Two subspecies (P. maniculatus anacapae, the Anacapa Deermouse, and P. maniculatus clementis, the San Clemente Deermouse) are Near Threatened.

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Comments: In coastal British Columbia, a population apparently was unaffected by herbicide treatment of a Douglas-fir plantation (Sullivan 1990).

An extensive body of research has been published on fire effects on animals
in semidesert grassland, oak savanna, and Madrean oak woodlands of southeastern
Arizona, including the response of deer mice to fire. See the Research Project Summary of this work for more information on
deer mice and more than 100 additional species of small mammals,
birds, grasshoppers, and herbaceous and woody plant species.

Conservation Actions

Deer mice eat seeds of valued forest trees, sometimes preventing the trees from growing back. In addition, deer mice can be destructive by raiding stored grains and other food supplies, gathering litter, and gnawing. Finally, deer mice are hosts for strain of hantavirus called Sin Nombre virus (also called Four Corners or Muerto Canyon virus). This virus, which can be transferred to humans from deer mice, causes an often deadly disease known as hantavirus pulmonary syndrome.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; household pest

Deer mice provide food for a number of carnivores, some of which are economically valuable fur-bearing mammals. Also, deer mice eat some insects that are considered pests.

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Deer mice consume seeds of valued forest trees, sometimes preventing regrowth. In addition, P. maniculatus can be destructive by raiding stored grains and other food supplies, gathering litter, and gnawing (Baker 1983). Finally, P. maniculatus is a host for strain of hantavirus called Sin Nombre virus (also called Four Corners or Muerto Canyon virus). This virus, which can be contracted by humans from deer mice, causes an often fatal disease termed hantavirus pulmonary syndrome (Rowe et al. 1995).

Negative Impacts: injures humans (carries human disease); crop pest; household pest

Peromyscus maniculatus provides food for a number of carnivores, some of which are economically valuable fur-bearing mammals. Also, deer mice consume some insects that are considered pests (Baker 1983).

Positive Impacts: controls pest population

Comments: Probably the primary reservoir for the newly discovered hantavirus, which was responsible for several human deaths in the southwestern U.S. in 1993; infection of humans has been recorded in several states in the western and central U.S.; those in contact with deer mice and other wild rodents should be cautioned about this disease; call the CDC Hantavirus Hotline 1-800-532-9929 for more information (Science 262:832-836; Peromyscus Newsletter, No. 16, September 1993). See also Childs et al. (1995).