Phragmites australis

This common reed forms large beds in shallow water; it has round, hollow stems, which typically grow to 2m in height, but may reach 4m (2). These stems grow from a system of stout, creeping rhizomes (3). The flat leaves taper into a point, and are attached to the stem by smooth sheaths, which are loose so that the leaves all point in one direction in the wind (2). The flowers are borne on highly branching purple inflorescences, which measure from 20 to 60cm in length (2). The flowers are grouped into 'spikelets', which are 10-15 mm in length and support 1-6 flowers (2).

Preserved remains of native Phragmites that are 40,000 years old have been found in the southwest indicating that it is a part of the native flora of that region. In coastal areas, preserved rhizome fragments dating back 3000-4000 years have also been found in salt marsh sediments indicating that it is also native to these habitats. Native American uses of Phragmites include use of stems for arrow shafts, musical instruments, ceremonial objects, cigarettes, and both leaves and stems for constructing mats.

Introduced Phragmites is thought to have arrived in North America accidentally, most likely in ballast material in the late 18th or early 19th centuries. It established itself along the Atlantic coast and over the course of the 20th century, spread across the continent. In Europe Phragmites is grown commercially and is used for thatching, fodder for livestock, and cellulose production. It is also declining in parts of Europe which has been of concern to natural resource managers there. Here in the United States it is not used for many purposes.

Perhaps one of the most unusual way reed was used was for drawing: Vincent van Gogh made his pen drawings using reed stems which were cut to a sharp point. Common reed is the largest and best known grass species in the Netherlands. If you see it growing, you can assume that the soil is damp. It can even tolerate brackish water. Reed has razor sharp leaves, which produce nasty slashes should you run a leaf through your hand. The hollow stems transport air to the plant parts standing under water. Therefore, it is essential not to cut reed below the water line, otherwise the plant will literally drown.

European forms of Phragmites were probably introduced to North America by accident in ballast material in the late 1700s or early 1800s. Recent research using genetic markers has demonstrated that three separate lineages occur in North America – one endemic and widespread (native), one whose nativity is not certain that occurs across the southern U.S. from California to Florida and into Mexico and Central America (‘Gulf Coast’ type) and one from Europe (introduced invasive), which is the focus of this writing. The European Phragmites first established along the Atlantic coast and then spread across the continent over the course of the 20th century. The native form was historically more widespread, occurring throughout Canada and most of the U.S. except for the Southeast (Texas to Florida and north to North Carolina). It remains fairly widespread in the western U.S.

Although the extensive system of rhizomes is perennial, in autumn the leaves of the reeds break away from the sheaths, which hold them in place. The dead reed stem remains in place throughout the winter (3). Reeds are still harvested for use in thatching, especially in the Norfolk Broads. Recently, there has been much interest in the potential of reedbeds as water filters; their spreading, creeping system of roots can remove nitrates and heavy metals from water (5).

australis: southern

 A tall reed with annual cane-like (round and hollow) stems up to 4 m in height, usually ca 2 m but occasionally less than 1m high. Forms beds with an extensive system of perennial rhizomes. Leaf blades are flat, ca 3-45 mm wide, usually 15-30 mm, tapering to long slender points. Leaves arranged alternately. Leaves are attached to the stem by a smooth sheath, bearing prominent wing-like extensions at the leaf base, with a fringe of fine hairs next to the stem. Flowers borne on a very large, many branched inflorescence 20-60 cm in length and usually purple in colour. Flowers arranged in spikelets, 10-15 mm in length, composed of 1-6 flowers. The small branches between the flowers bear conspicuous long, white silky hairs. The spikelet bears unequal sized scales (glumes) at its base. The lower scale (or casing) of the floret is larger than the upper scale. The flower is composed of a hairless ovary, bearing two scales, with 3 pollen bearing stamens, except in the lowest floret which has 1-3 stamens.Phragmites australis is a characteristic tall reed with a large purple inflorescence, however, accurate identification requires an examination of the structure of the inflorescence and flowers (for details see Haslam, 1972; Stace, 1999). The common reed is harvested primarily for use in thatching in Britain but has numerous uses worldwide (Haslam, 1972). Phragmites australis is the dominant species in reedbeds, a UK BAP habitat, and amongst the most important habitat for birds in the UK such as the bittern, the reed bunting and the marsh harrier (Anon, 1995; Hawke & José, 1996).

Grass Family (Poaceae). Common reed is a warm season, rhizomatous, stoloniferous perennial, native to the U.S. The height ranges from 6 to 12 feet. The leaf blade is flat; smooth; 1/2 to 2 inches wide; and 6 to 18 inches long. The seedhead is an open panicle with a purplish or tawny and flaglike appearance after seed shatter. Common reed is readily identified by its height. It is the tallest grass in southern marshes and swamps.

giant reed, giant reedgrass, Roseau, roseau cane, yellow cane, cane, Phragmites communis

Phragmites occurs throughout the lower 48 states and southern Canada. It has been reported to be invasive in natural areas in 18 states including Colorado, Connecticut, Delaware, Georgia, Indiana, Kentucky, Maryland, Michigan, North Carolina, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New York, Ohio, Pennsylvania, Tennessee, Virginia, Vermont, and Wisconsin, and the District of Columbia.

Eurasia

Common reed occurs in disturbed to pristine wet areas including tidal and non-tidal wetlands, brackish and fresh-water marshes, river edges, shores of lakes and ponds, roadsides and ditches. It prefers full sun and can tolerate fresh to mesohaline salinities.

Europe

Nile region, oases, Mediterranean region, Egyptian desert, Res Sea coastal strip and Sinai (St.Katherine).

Phragmites australis subsp. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) Saltonstall & Hauber:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
United States (North America)
Caribbean (Caribbean)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Phragmites prostratus Makino:
Japan (Asia)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Phragmites dioicus Hack.:
Argentina (South America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Czernya arundinacea C. Presl:
Italy (Europe)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Phragmites communis var. berlandieri (E. Fourn.) Fernald:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Phragmites phragmites (L.) H. Karst.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Phragmites communis Trin.:
Belize (Mesoamerica)
Bolivia (South America)
Canada (North America)
China (Asia)
Ecuador (South America)
Guatemala (Mesoamerica)
Honduras (Mesoamerica)
India (Asia)
Madagascar (Africa & Madagascar)
United States (North America)
Peru (South America)
New Zealand (Oceania)
Caribbean (Caribbean)
Venezuela (South America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Global Range: Phragmites australis is found on every continent except Antarctica and may have the widest distribution of any flowering plant (Tucker 1990). It is common in and near freshwater, brackish and alkaline wetlands in the temperate zones world-wide. It may also be found in some tropical wetlands but is absent from the Amazon Basin and central Africa. It is widespread in the United states, typically growing in marshes, swamps, fens, and prairie potholes, usually inhabiting the marsh-upland interface where it may form continuous belts (Roman et al. 1984).

Because Phragmites has invaded and formed near-monotypic stands in some North American wetlands only in recent decades there has been some debate as to whether it is indigenous to this continent or not. Convincing evidence that it was here long before European contact is now available from at least two sources. Niering and Warren (1977) found remains of Phragmites in cores of 3000 year old peat from tidal marshes in Connecticut. Identifiable Phragmites remains dating from 600 to 900 A.D. and constituting parts of a twined mat and other woven objects were found during archaeological investigations of Anasazi sites in southwestern Colorado (Kane & Gross 1986; Breternitz et al. 1986).

There is some suspicion that although the species itself is indigenous to North America, new, more invasive genotype(s) were introduced from the Old World (Metzler and Rosza 1987). Hauber et al. (1991) found that invasive Phragmites populations in the Mississippi River Delta differed genetically from a more stable population near New Orleans. They also examined populations elsewhere on the Gulf coast, from extreme southern Texas to the Florida panhandle, and found no genetic differences between those populations and the one near New Orleans (Hauber, pers. comm. 1992). This increased their suspicion that the invasive biotypes were introduced to the Delta from somewhere outside the Gulf relatively recently.

Phragmites is frequently regarded as an aggressive, unwanted invader in the East and Upper Midwest. It has also earned this reputation in the Mississippi River Delta of southern Louisiana, where over the last 50 years, it has displaced species that provided valuable forage for wildlife, particularly migratory waterfowl (Hauber 1991). In other parts of coastal Louisiana, however, it is feared that Phragmites is declining as a result of increasing saltwater intrusion in the brackish marshes it occupies. Phragmites is apparently decreasing in Texas as well due to invasion of its habitat by the alien grass ARUNDO DONAX (Poole, pers. comm. 1985). Similarly, Phragmites is present in the Pacific states but is not regarded as a problem there. In fact, throughout the western U.S. there is some concern over decreases in the species' habitat and losses of populations.

Found in appropriate habitats throughout Britain, and is particularly common in the south-east (2). Although the distribution of this species seems to be stable, there have been local losses (4). The common reed has a very broad global range; it is found in all parts of the world except for some tropical areas (3).

Distribution: Pakistan (Punjab & Kashmir); temperate regions of both hemispheres in the Old World and the New.

Widespread in temperate regions, N.W. India, Nepal.

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

Widely distributed in the northern hemisphere.

Common reed, or Phragmites, is a tall, perennial grass that can grow to over 15 feet in height. In North America, both native phragmites (Phragmites australis ssp. americanus Saltonstall, P.M. Peterson & Soreng) and introduced subspecies are found. Introduced Phragmites forms dense stands which include both live stems and standing dead stems from previous year’s growth. Leaves are elongate and typically 1-1.5 inches wide at their widest point. Flowers form bushy panicles in late July and August and are usually purple or golden in color. As seeds mature, the panicles begin to look “fluffy” due to the hairs on the seeds and they take on a grey sheen. Below ground, Phragmites forms a dense network of roots and rhizomes which can go down several feet in depth. The plant spreads horizontally by sending out rhizome runners which can grow 10 or more feet in a single growing season if conditions are optimal.

Please see the table below for information on distinguishing betweeen native and introduced Phragmites.

Perennials, Aquatic, leaves emergent, Terrestrial, not aquatic, Rhizomes present, Rhizome elongate, creeping, stems distant, Stems nodes swollen or brittle, Stems erect or ascending, Stems terete, round in cross section, or polygonal, Stems branching above base or distally at nodes, Stem internodes hollow, Stems with inflorescence 1-2 m tall, Stems with inflorescence 2-6 m tall, Stems, culms, or scapes exceeding basal leaves, Leaves mostly cauline, Leaves conspicuously 2-ranked, distichous, Leaves sheathing at base, Leaf sheath mostly open, or loose, Leaf sheath smooth, glabrous, Leaf sheath and blade differentiated, Leaf blades disarticulating from sheath, deciduous at ligule, Leaf blades linear, Leaf blades lanceolate, Leaf blades 1-2 cm wide, Leaf blades 2 or more cm wide, Leaf blades mostly flat, Leaf blades mostly glabrous, Ligule present, Ligule a fringed, ciliate, or lobed membrane, Inflorescence terminal, Inflorescence an open panicle, openly paniculate, branches spreading, Inflorescence solitary, with 1 spike, fascicle, glomerule, head, or cluster per stem or culm, Inflorescence branches more than 10 to numerous, Peduncle or rachis scabrous or pubescent, often with long hairs, Flowers bisexual, Spikelets pedicellate, Spikelets laterally compressed, Spikelet less than 3 mm wide, Spikelets with 2 florets, Spikelets with 3-7 florets, Spikelets with 8-40 florets, Spi kelets solitary at rachis nodes, Spikelets all alike and fertille, Spikelets bisexual, Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes, glumes persistent, Spikelets disarticulating beneath or between the florets, Spikelets conspicuously hairy , Rachilla or pedicel hairy, Glumes present, empty bracts, Glumes 2 clearly present, Glumes distinctly unequal, Glumes shorter than adjacent lemma, Glumes 3 nerved, Glumes 4-7 nerved, Lemma similar in texture to glumes, Lemma 3 nerved, Lemma glabrous, Lemma apex acute or acuminate, Lemma awnless, Lemma margins inrolled, tightly covering palea and caryopsis, Lemma straight, Palea present, well developed, Palea membranous, hyaline, Palea shorter than lemma, Stamens 3, Styles 2-fid, deeply 2-branched, Stigmas 2, Fruit - caryopsis.

Perennial reed, with creeping rhizomes. Culms erect, 1.5-3(6) m high. Leaf-blades 20-60 cm (or more) long and 8-32 mm wide, glabrous, smooth beneath, the tips filiform and flexuous (sometimes stiff and pungent, see below). Panicle 20-30(-50) cm long and 6-10(-15) cm wide, the lowest node usually few-branched, some of the branches bearing spikelets nearly to their base. Spikelets 12-18 mm long, the rhachilla-hairs 6-10 mm long, copious, silky; lower glume 3-4.5 mm long; upper glume lanceolate, 5-9 mm long, sharply acute, usually apiculate; lowest lemma linear lanceolate to linear-oblong, 8-15 mm long; fertile lemmas very narrowly lanceolate, 9-13 mm long.

Robust perennial from an extensive creeping rhizome; overground stolons sometimes present, straight, nodes glabrous. Culms up to 2 m or more tall, ca. 6 mm in diam., usually farinose below nodes, nodes glabrous or pubescent. Leaf sheaths light green, glabrous or thinly hairy; leaf blades usually drooping, up to 50 × 1–3 cm, smooth or margins scabrous, tapering to a filiform apex; ligule a minute membranous rim, ciliate, hairs 0.2–0.6 mm. Panicle 20–50 × ca. 10 cm, branches of lowermost whorl usually spiculate to base, densely hirsute at insertion; pedicels 2–4 mm, glabrous or pilose only at base. Spikelets 10–18 mm, florets 2–5; glumes acute, lower glume up to 1/2 length of lowest lemma, 3–5 mm, upper glume 6–9 mm; lowest lemma linear-lanceolate, 8–15 mm; floret callus with hairs equal to lemma; bisexual lemmas very narrowly lanceolate, 9–16 mm, apex long attenuate. Fl. and fr. Jul–Nov. 2n = 36, 44, 46, 48, 49, 50, 51, 52, 54, 84, 96, 120.

3000-3600 m

Tall reed. Rhizome conspicuous. Ligule 1 mm long, upper margin fimbriate, blade 2 cm wide. Panicle large, open. Spikelets usually 3-flowered, 14 mm long; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous, 3-nerved, sometimes tessellate-nerved; the lower 4 mm long; lemma 7-10 mm long, chartaceous, 3-nerved, lanceolate, glabrous; callus elongated with silky hairs; palea 2.5-4 mm long, 2-keeled, margins minutely ciliate, apex truncate.

Tall reed. Rhizome conspicuous. Ligule 1 mm long, upper margin fimbriate, blade 2 cm wide. Panicle large, open. Spikelets usually 3-flowered, 14 mm long; glumes lanceolate, chartaceous, 3-nerved, sometimes tessellate-nerved; the lower 4 mm long; lemma 7-10 mm long, chartaceous, 3-nerved, lanceolate, glabrous; callus elongated with silky hairs; palea 2.5-4 mm long, 2-keeled, margins minutely ciliate, apex truncate.

Arundo australis Cavanilles, Anales Hist. Nat. 1: 100. 1799; A. phragmites Linnaeus; Phragmites communis Trinius.

Members of the genus Phragmites are superficially similar to Arundo. Sterile specimens of P. australis are sometimes misidentified as Arundo donax, a grass introduced to North America from Asia and now troublesome in natural areas, especially in California. The genera can be distinguished when in flower because the glumes of Phragmites are glabrous while those of Arundo are covered with soft, whitish hairs 6-8 mm long. In addition, the glumes are much shorter than the lemmas in Phragmites.

Tidal and nontidal brackish and freshwater marshes, river edges, shores of lakes and ponds, roadsides, disturbed areas.

Depth range based on 8 specimens in 1 taxon.

Environmental ranges
  Depth range (m): 1.5 - 1.5
 
Note: this information has not been validated. Check this *note*. Your feedback is most welcome.

Comments: Phragmites is especially common in alkaline and brackish (slightly saline) environments (Haslam 1972, 1971b), and can also thrive in highly acidic wetlands (Rawinski, pers. comm. 1985). However, Phragmites does not require, nor even prefer these habitats to freshwater areas. Its growth is greater in fresh water but it may be outcompeted in these areas by other species that cannot tolerate brackish, alkaline or acidic waters. It is often found in association with other wetland plants including species from the following genera: SPARTINA, CAREX, NYMPHAEA, TYPHA, GLYCERIA, JUNCUS, MYRICA, TRIGLOCHIN, CALAMAGROSTIS, GALIUM, and PHALARIS (Howard et al. 1978).

Phragmites occurs in disturbed areas as well as pristine sites. It is especially common along railroad tracks, roadside ditches, and piles of dredge spoil, wherever even slight depressions hold water (Ricciuti 1983). Penko (pers. comm. 1993) has observed stunted Phragmites growing on acidic tailings (Ph 2.9) from an abandoned copper mine in Vermont. Various types of human manipulation and/or disturbance are thought to promote Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). For example, restriction of the tidal inundation of a marsh may result in a lowering of the water table, which may in turn favor Phragmites. Likewise, sedimentation may promote the spread of Phragmites by elevating a marsh's substrate surface and effectively reducing the frequency of tidal inundation (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

A number of explanations have been proposed to account for the recent dramatic increases in Phragmites populations in the northeastern and Great Lakes States. As noted above, habitat manipulations and disturbances caused by humans are thought to have a role. In some areas Phragmites may also have been promoted by the increases in soil salinity which result when de- icing salt washes off roads and into nearby ditches and wetlands (McNabb and Batterson 1991). On the other hand, bare patches of road sand washed into ditches and wetlands may be of greater importance. Phragmites seeds are shed from November through January and so may be among the first propagules to reach these sites. If the seeds germinate and become established the young plants will usually persist for at least two years in a small, rather inconspicuous stage, resembling many other grasses. Later, perhaps after the input of nutrients, they may take off and assume the tall growth form that makes the species easily identifiable . Increases in soil nutrient concentrations, may come from runoff from farms and urban areas. It has also been suggested increases in nutrient concentrations, especially nitrates, are primarily responsible for increases in Phragmites populations. Ironically, eutrophication and increases in nitrate levels are sometimes blamed for the decline of Phragmites populations in Europe (Den Hartog et al. 1989).

 Forms extensive stands on mud or in shallow water in marshes, fens, bogs, and the edges of shallow lakes, salt marshes and estuaries.

This wetland species forms large beds on mud or in shallow water (2); it is found in swamps and fens, ditches, at the edges of lakes, ponds, and rivers as well as in coastal lagoons, brackish swamps, estuaries and where freshwater seeps over sea-cliffs (4). This reed is the dominant species in reedbeds, a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) (2).

Moist places along river banks and lake margins, forming large colonies. Throughout China [cosmopolitan].

Growth starts in February in some locations. Foliage stays green until frost. New shoots grow from buds at nodes of old, stems, stolons, and rhizomes. It grows in marshes and swamps, on banks of streams and lakes, and around springs. It grows best in firm mineral clays and tolerates moderate salinity. It does best if water level fluctuates from 6 inches below soil surface to 6 inches above. Common reed is often codominant with big cordgrass (Spartina cynosuroides) on the gulf coast marsh rangelands.

Known Pests: APHIDS

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

Comments: Perhaps the most widespread plant species on Earth, with numerous large, presumably native stands on all continents except Antarctica. In addition, at least in North America, novel (Eurasian?) genotypes have become widely established along the Atlantic Coast and in scattered inland sites where Phragmites was not previously known historically (Kristin Saltonstall, presentation to Botanical Society of Washington, 5 June 2001).

Salinity and depth to the water table are among the factors which control the distribution and performance of Phragmites. Maximum salinity tolerances vary from population to population; reported maxima range from 12 ppt (1.2%) in Britain to 29 ppt in New York state to 40 ppt on the Red Sea coast (Hocking et al. 1983). Dense stands normally lose more water through evapotranspiration than is supplied by rain (Haslam 1970). However, rhizomes can reach down almost 2 meters below ground, their roots penetrating even deeper, allowing the plant to reach low lying ground water (Haslam 1970). Killing frosts may knock the plants back temporarily but can ultimately increase stand densities by stimulating bud development (Haslam 1968).

Phragmites has a low tolerance for wave and current action which can break its culms (vertical stems) and impede bud formation in the rhizomes (Haslam 1970). It can survive, and in fact thrive, in stagnant waters where the sediments are poorly aerated at best (Haslam 1970). Air spaces in the above-ground stems and in the rhizomes themselves assure the underground parts of the plant with a relatively fresh supply of air. This characteristic and the species' salinity tolerance allow it to grow where few others can survive (Haslam 1970). In addition the build up of litter from the aerial shoots within stands prevents or discourages other species from germinating and becoming established (Haslam 1971a). The rhizomes and adventitious roots themselves form dense mats that further discourage competitors. These characteristics are what enable Phragmites to spread, push other species out and form monotypic stands.

Such stands may alter the wetlands they colonize, eliminating habitat for valued animal species. On the other hand, the abundant cover of litter in Phragmites stands may provide habitat for some small mammals, insects and reptiles. The aerial stems provide nesting sites for several species of birds, and Song Sparrows have been seen eating Phragmites' seeds (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985). Muskrats (ONDATRA ZIBETHICUS) use Phragmites for emergency cover when low lying marshes are swept by storm tides and for food when better habitats are overpopulated (Lynch et al. 1947).

Studies conducted in Europe indicate that gall-forming and stem- boring insects may significantly reduce growth of Phragmites (Durska 1970; Pokorny 1971). Skuhravy (1978) estimated that roughly one-third of the stems in a stand may be damaged reducing stand productivity by 10-20%. Mook and van der Toorn (1982) found yields were reduced by 25 to 60% in stands heavily infested with lepidopteran stem- or rhizome-borers. Hayden (1947) suggested that aphids (HYALOPTERUS PRUNI) heavily damaged a Phragmites stand in Iowa. On the other hand work in Europe by Pintera (1971) indicated that although high densities of aphids may bring about reductions in Phragmites shoot height and leaf area they had little effect on shoot weight. Like other emergent macrophytes, Phragmites has tough leaves and appears to suffer little grazing by leaf-chewing insects (Penko 1985).

As mentioned above, there is great concern about recent declines in Phragmites in Europe where the species is still used for thatch. In fact, the journal Aquatic Botany devoted an entire issue (volume 35 no.1, September 1989) to this subject. Factors believed responsible for the declines include habitat destruction and manipulation of hydrologic regimes by humans, grazing, sedimentation and decreased water quality (eutrophication) (Ostendorp 1989).

Detailed reviews of the ecology and physiological ecology of Phragmites are provided by Haslam (1972; 1973) and Hocking et al. (1983) and an extensive bibliography is provided by van der Merff et al. (1987).

Fl. & Fr. Per.: July-October.

Perennial.

While each Phragmites plant may produce thousands of seeds annually, seed viability is typically low although there appears to be a great deal of interannual variation in fecundity. Dispersal to new sites is typically by seed except along rivers and shorelines where fragments of rhizomes may be washed down to new sites where they can establish. Along roadsides, rhizomes fragments may also be transported by heavy machinery between sites. At this time, there is no evidence for hybrid native/introduced populations occurring in the field.

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Nearly cosmopolitan as a presumably native plant in marshes and other wetland habitats on all continents except Antarctica. Additionally, at least in North America, non-native genotypes may have become established in areas not previously supporting Phragmites.

Common and widespread (4). Reedbeds are a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan (UK BAP) (6).

Considered a noxious weed in several states. Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Global Short Term Trend: Increase of 10 to >25%

Comments: Increasing overall in North America, although decreasing at some sites, and some historically known genotypes of New England now possibly extirpated by introduction of more vigorous alien genotypes there (Saltonstall, unpubl., 2001).

Comments: IMPACTS (THREATS POSED BY THIS SPECIES)

Phragmites can be regarded as a stable, natural component of a wetland community if the habitat is pristine and the population does not appear to be expanding. Many native populations of Phragmites are "benign" and pose little or no threat to other species and should be left intact. Examples of areas with stable, native populations include sea-level fens in Delaware and Virginia and along Mattagota Stream in Maine (Rawinski 1985, pers. comm. 1992). In Europe, a healthy reed belt is defined as a "homogeneous, dense or sparse stand with no gaps in its inner parts, with an evenly formed lakeside borderline without aisles, shaping a uniform fringe or large lobes, stalk length decreasing gradually at the lakeside border, but all stalks of one stand of similar height; at the landside edge the reeds are replaced by sedge or woodland communities or by unfertilized grasslands" (Ostendorp 1989).

Stable populations may be difficult to distinguish from invasive populations, but one should examine such factors as site disturbance and the earliest collection dates of the species to arrive at a determination. If available, old and recent aerial photos can be compared to determine whether stands in a given area are expanding or not (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

Phragmites is a problem when and where stands appear to be spreading while other species typical the of the community are diminishing. Disturbances or stresses such as pollution, alteration of the natural hydrologic regime, dredging, and increased sedimentation favor invasion and continued spread of Phragmites (Roman et al. 1984). Other factors that may have favored recent invasion and spread of Phragmites include increases in soil salinity (from fresh to brackish) and/or nutrient concentrations, especially nitrate, and the introduction of a more invasive genotype(s) from the Old World (McNabb and Batterson 1991; Metzler and Rosza 1987, see GLOBAL RANGE section for further discussion).

Michael Lefor asserts that one reason for the general spread of Phragmites has been the destabilization of the landscape (pers. comm. 1993). In urban landscapes water is apt to collect in larger volumes and pass through more quickly (flashily) than formerly. This tends to destabilize substrates leaving bare soil open for colonization. Watersheds throughout eastern North America are flashier due to the proliferation of paved surfaces, lawns and roofs and the fact that upstream wetlands are largely filled with post-settlement/post agricultural sediments from initial land-clearing operations.

Many Atlantic coast wetland systems have been invaded by Phragmites as a result of tidal restrictions imposed by roads, water impoundments, dikes and tide gates. Tide gates have been installed in order to drain marshes to harvest salt hay, to control mosquito breeding and, most recently, to protect coastal development from flooding during storms. This alteration of marsh systems may favor Phragmites invasion by reducing tidal action and soil water salinity and lowering water tables.

Phragmites invasions may threaten wildlife because they alter the structure and function (wildlife support) of relatively diverse Spartina marshes (Roman et al. 1984). This is a problem on many of the eastern coastal National Fish and Wildlife Refuges including: Brigantine in NJ; Prime Hook and Bombay Hook in DE; Tinicum in PA; Chincoteague in VA; and Trustom Pond in RI.

Plant species and communities threatened by Phragmites are listed in the Monitoring section. Some of these instances are described below:

1. Massachusetts, a brackish pondlet near Horseneck Beach supports the state rare plant MYRIOPHYLLUM PINNATUM (Walter) BSP, which Phragmites is threatening by reducing the available open water and shading aquatic vegetation (Sorrie, pers. comm. 1985).

2. Maryland, at Nassawango Creek, a rare coastal plain peatland community is threatened by Phragmites (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

3. Ohio, at the Arcola Creek wetland, phragmites is threatening the state endangered plant CAREX AQUATILIS Wahlenb. (Young, pers. comm. 1985).

Phragmites invasions also increase the potential for marsh fires during the winter when the above ground portions of the plant die and dry out (Reimer 1973). Dense congregations of redwing blackbirds, which nest in Phragmites stands preferentially, increase chances of airplane accidents nearby. The monitoring and control of mosquito breeding is nearly impossible in dense Phragmites stands (Hellings and Gallagher 1992). In addition, Phragmites invasions can also have adverse aesthetic impacts. In Boston's Back Bay Fens, dense stands have obscured vistas intended by the park's designer, Frederick Law Olmstead (Penko, pers. comm. 1993).

As noted above Phragmites is not considered a threat in the West or most areas in the Gulf states.

In Britain, reedbeds are one of the most important habitats for birds; a number of extremely rare birds are entirely dependent on the habitat, including the bittern (Botaurus stellaris), the marsh harrier (Circus aeruginosus) and the bearded tit (Panurus biarmicus). Unfortunately the total area of reedbeds is small, water abstraction, resulting in a lowering of the water table, as well as conversion to agricultural land have further reduced the area of reedbeds (6). Unsuitable management or neglect can result in a reedbed drying out; if the reeds are not cut regularly, the habitat will be invaded by willow scrub and will eventually become a wet woodland (5). Pollution of freshwater inputs into reedbeds can lead to the death of reeds, and siltation can cause drying out. Furthermore, many of the largest and most important reedbeds in Britain are on the eastern coast, and are threatened by sea-level rise (6).

Restoration Potential: Areas that have been invaded by Phragmites have excellent potential for recovery. Management programs have proven that phragmites can be controlled, and natural vegetation will return. However, monitoring is imperative because Phragmites tends to reinvade and control techniques may need to be applied several times or, perhaps, in perpetuity. It is also important to note that some areas have been so heavily manipulated and degraded that it may be impossible to eliminate Phragmites from them. For example, it may be especially difficult to control Phragmites in freshwater impoundments that were previously salt marshes.

Management Requirements: Invasive populations of Phragmites must be managed in order to protect rare plants that it might outcompete, valued animals whose habitat it might dominate and degrade, and healthy ecosystems that it might greatly alter.

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL: Biological control does not appear to be an option at this time. No organisms which significantly damage Phragmites australis but do not feed on other plant species have been identified. In addition, some of the arthropods that feed on Phragmites are killed by winter fires and thus would likely be eliminated from the systems where prescribed fires are used. Coots, nutria, and muskrats may feed on Phragmites but appear to have limited impacts on its populations (Cross and Fleming 1989).

BURNING: Prescribed burning has

BURNING: Prescribed burning does not reduce the growing ability of Phragmites unless root burn occurs. Root burn seldom occurs, however, because the rhizomes are usually covered by a layer of soil, mud and/or water. Fires in Phragmites stands are dangerous because this species can cause spot-fires over 100 feet away (Beall 1984). Burning does remove accumulated Phragmites leaf litter, giving the seeds of other species area to germinate.

CHEMICAL: Rodeo TM, a water solution of the isopropylamine salt of glyphosate is commonly used for Phragmites control. This herbicide is not, however, selective and will kill grasses and broadleaved plants alike. Toxicity tests indicate that it is virtually non-toxic to all aquatic animals tested. It should be noted that many of these tests were performed by or for Monsanto, the company which manufactures Rodeo.

Rodeo must be mixed with water and a surfactant which allows it to stick to and subsequently be absorbed by the plant (Beall 1984). Instructions for application are on the Rodeo label.

Application of Rodeo must take place after the tasseling stage when the plant is supplying nutrients to the rhizome.

CUTTING: Cutting has been used successfully to control phragmites. Since it is a grass, cutting several times during a season, at the wrong times, may increase stand density (Osterbrock 1984). However, if cut just before the end of July, most of the food reserves produced that season are removed with the aerial portion of the plant, reducing the plant's vigor. This regime may eliminate a colony if carried out annually for several years. Care must be taken to remove cut shoots to prevent their sprouting and forming stolons (Osterbrock 1984).

GRAZING, DREDGING, AND DRAINING: Grazing, dredging, and draining are other methods that have often been used to reduce stand vigor (Howard, Rhodes and Simmers 1978). However, draining and dredging are not appropriate for use on most preserves (Osterbrock, 1984).

Grazing may trample the rhizomes and reduce vigor but the results are limited (Cross and Fleming 1989). Van Deursen and Drost (1990) found that cattle consumed 67-98% of above-ground biomass; in a four year study, they found that reed populations may reach new equilibria under grazing regimes.

MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: Reintroduced tidal action and salinity can reduce Phragmites vigor and restore the community's integrity.

MOWING, DISKING, AND PULLING: Beall (1984) discourages mowing and disking. Mowing only affects the above ground portion of the plant, so mowing would have to occur annually. To remove the rhizome, disking could be employed. However, discing could potentially result in an increase of Phragmites since pieces of the rhizome can produce new plants. Cross and Fleming (1989) describe successful mowing regimes of several year duration during the summer (August and September) and disking in summer or fall.

Management Programs: BURNING: Prescribed burning has been used with success after chemical treatment at The Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, NJ (Beall 1984) and in Delaware (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Occasional burning has been used in Delaware in conjunction with intensive spraying and water level management. This helps remove old canes and allows other vegetation to grow (Daly, pers. comm. 1991).

According to Cross and Fleming (1989), late summer burns may be effective, but winter and spring burning may in fact increase the densities of spring crops.

CHEMICAL: At the Brigantine National Wildlife Refuge, Rodeo was applied aerially after the plants tasseled in late August. The application resulted in a 90% success. The following February, a fast moving prescribed burn was carried out to remove litter, exposing the seed bed for re-establishment of marsh vegetation.

Aerial spraying has been used since 1983 in many Delaware state wildlife refuges (Lehman, pers. comm. 1992). Using Rodeo, the state sprays freshwater and brackish impoundments, brackish marshes, and salt marshes from early September to early October; this is combined with winter burns between the first and second year of spraying.

In more fragile situations where Phragmites is threatening a rare plant or community, aerial spray techniques are inappropriate because such large-scale application could kill the community that the entire operation was designed to protect. Glyphosate can be applied to specific plants and areas by hand with a backpack sprayer. Wayne Klockner of The Nature Conservancy's Maryland Field Office has been successful in eliminating most Phragmites at the Nassawango preserve by applying glyphosate by hand with a backpack sprayer (Klockner, pers. comm. 1985).

CUTTING: In the Arcola Creek Preserve in Ohio, cutting reduced the vigor of the Phragmites colony.

Cutting an area 25' x 25' to waist height with a hedge clippers and the applying one drop of Roundup with a syringe with a large needle into the top of the plant in a brackish- freshwater marsh was begun in Constitution Marsh in New York in 1991 (Keene, pers. comm. 1991). Initial results indicate 90% eradication.

MANIPULATION OF WATER LEVEL AND SALINITY: A self-regulating tide gate which reintroduced saltwater tidal action was used to help restore a diked marsh in Fairfield, Connecticut (Thomas Steinke pers. comm. 1992; Bongiorno et al. 1984); plant density declined dramatically the following year.

Flooding can be used to control Phragmites when 3 feet of water covers the rhizome for an extended period during the growing season, usually four months (Beall 1984). However, many areas can not be flooded to such depths. Furthermore, flooding could destroy the communities or plants targeted for protection.

Open Marsh Water Management (OMWM) has been used as a method to control Phragmites (Niniviaggi, pers. comm. 1991; Rozsa, pers. comm. 1992).

Monitoring Programs: The programs listed below used various methods to control Phragmites populations and are monitoring the success of these actions including the degree of recovery of native species and the longevity of the control.

CONNECTICUT Monitoring phragmites reduction and replacement vegetation after reintroducing tidal flow, using transects and line intercept. Contact: Charles T. Roman, William Niering, Scott Warren Dept of Botany Connecticut College New London, CT 06320

Monitoring Phragmites reaction to reintroduction of tidal flow and salinity. Contact: Tom Steinke Fairfield Conservation Commission, Independence Hall 725 Old Post Road Fairfield, CT 06430 203-256-3071

Annual cutting of perimeter of one-acre stand and monitoring with aerial photos on five-year basis; herbicide application on small patch at edge of salt marsh. Contact: Beth Lapin The Nature Conservancy 55 High Street Middletown, CT 06457 203-344-0716

DELAWARE Aerial spraying of RodeoTM (glyphosate) and water management plan using stoplogs and vegetation analyses of replacement species. Contact: Paul Daly Bombay Hook National Wildlife Refuge RD #1 Box 147 Smyrna, DE 19977 302-653-9345

Monitoring the ecological factors (water table level, PH, salinity) governing the growth of Phragmites in 4 habitats; 1) open high salt marsh, 2) open low salt marsh, 3) brackish water impoundment, 4) freshwater impoundment. Investigating Phragmites control with glyphosate. Contact: Wayne Lehman and Bill Jones Delaware Division of Fish and Wildlife P.O. Box 1401 Dover, DE 19903 302-653-2079.

MASSACHUSETTS Cutting three times in one season, followed by opening of tidal flood gate. Contact: Mike Wheelwright Department of Public Works Town of Quincy Quincy, MA 02169 617-773-1380 x210 Contact: Ross Dobberteen Lelito Environmental Consultants 2 Bourbon St. #102 Peabody, MA 01960 508-535-7861

MARYLAND Nassawango Creek, A Nature Conservancy Preserve RodeoTM (glyphosate) applied with backpack sprayer. Contact: Wayne Klockner The Nature Conservancy Chevy Chase Center Office Building 35 Wisconsin Circle, Suite 304 Chevy Chase Maryland 20815 301-656-8073

Spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), burning. Contact: Steve Ailstock Environmental Center Anne Arundel Community College Arnold, MD

NEW JERSEY Aerial spraying with RodeoTM (glyphosate), prescribed burn to remove litter. Contact: David Beall Edwin B. Forsythe National Wildlife Refuge Brigantine Division PO Box 72, Great Creek RD Oceanville, NJ 08231 609-652-1665

Pulling rhizomes, chemical spray. Contact: Liz Johnson The Nature Conservancy 17 Fairmont Road Pottersville, NJ 07979 908-439-3007 NEW YORK:

Using water level manipulation and burning. Contact: Bob Parris Wertheim NWR P.O. Box 21 Smith Road Shirley, NY 11967 516-286-0485

PENNSYLVANIA Chemical application. Contact: Dick Nugent Tinicum Environmental Center Scott Plaza 2 Philadelphia, PA 19113 215-521-0663

OHIO Arcola Creek Wetland, Morgan Marsh Controlling Phragmites by cutting. Contact: Terry Seidel The Nature Conservancy Ohio Field Office 1504 West 1st Ave. Columbus, Ohio 43212 614-486-6789

VIRGINIA RodeoTM (glyphosate) application and monitoring program. Contact: Irvin Ailes Chincoteague National Wildlife Refuge Chincoteague, VA 23336 804-336-6122

Winter burns. Contact: Marilyn Ailes Public Works Office Building Q29 Aegis Combat System Center Wallops Island, VA 23337 804-824-2082

Management Research Programs: LOUISIANA Aerial photographs of the Mississippi River Delta indicated that different stands of Phragmites had different infrared signatures. Isozyme analyses were performed on samples from these stands in order to determine whether they differed genetically and constituted different clones. Two distinct clones were found and both differed from stands elsewhere on the Gulf coast. Additional isozymal work is planned on populations from elsewhere on the Gulf coast and, if time allows, from populations in the eastern and Great Lakes states as well

For research on population biology and control methods refer to BIOLOGICAL MONITORING PROGRAMS section.

Management Research Needs: Research on the following facets of Phragmites invasions and basic biology are needed: 1. what types and levels of disturbance and stress induce Phragmites to invade and/or dominate an area?; 2. how effective are various control programs and what conditions promote or allow Phragmites to reinvade areas from which it has been removed?; 3. if Phragmites does reinvade how long does this process take?; 4. are there ways to alleviate or mitigate for the stresses that induce the spread of Phragmites?; 5. can the use of competitive plantings of TYPHA or other desirable species be used to control Phragmites.

Biological Research Needs: What are the genetics of natural populations and how do stable and invasive populations differ?

Reedbeds are a priority habitat under the UK Biodiversity Action Plan. Many important reedbeds are listed as Sites of Special Scientific Interest (SSSIs), classified as Wetlands of International Importance under the RAMSAR Convention, and Special Protection Areas (SPAs) under the EC Birds Directive (6). Many are managed as reserves by the RSPB, English Nature and the Countryside Council for Wales (6).

Please contact your local NRCS Field Office.

This grass cannot withstand prolonged heavy grazing. Its upright growth makes it easy for livestock to remove all the leaves. For maximum production, no more than 50 percent of current year's growth by weight should be grazed off during growing season. Common reed tolerates burning if water is above soil surface. Burning is not essential for management. Water control that lowers the water level, but does not drain the area, increases production. Grazing deferments of 60 to 90 days every 2 to 3 years during the growing season improve plant vigor.

Although coarse, common reed is readily eaten by cattle and horses. It provides high quality warm season forage but becomes tough and unpalatable after maturity. Animals grazing this grass during winter should be fed a protein concentrate. This plant has been used in the Southwest for lattices in constructing adobe houses. Indians have used the stems for arrows, weaving mats, and carrying nets.

Once introduced Phragmites invades a site it quickly can take over a marsh community, crowding out native plants, changing marsh hydrology, altering wildlife habitat, and increasing fire potential. Its high biomass blocks light to other plants and occupies all the growing space belowground so plant communities can turn into a Phragmites monoculture very quickly. Phragmites can spread both by seed dispersal and by vegetative spread via fragments of rhizomes that break off and are transported elsewhere. New populations of the introduced type may appear sparse for the first few years of growth but due to the plant’s rapid growth rate, they will typically form a pure stand that chokes out other vegetation very quickly.

Common reed is a vigorous growing plant that forms dense monotypic stands that consume available growing space and push out other plants including the native subspecies. It also alters wetland hydrology, increases the potential for fire and reduces and degrades wetland wildlife habitat due in part to its very dense growth habit. There is currently no evidence for of hybridization between native and introduced forms occurring in the field.

Stewardship Overview: Communities that have stable Phragmites populations present but have been exposed to disturbance should be closely monitored. Management is necessary when evidence indicates that Phragmites has spread, or is spreading and threatening the integrity of rare communities, invading the habitat of rare plants or animals or interfering with the wildlife support function of refuges. Cutting, burning, application of herbicides (in particular Rodeo), or water management schemes are possible control measures. The measure(s) used will depend on a number of factors including the size and location of the infestation, the presence of sensitive rare species and the work-force available.

Considered a noxious weed in several states.