Restoration Potential: Considered common in appropriate habitats. However, sustaining populations will depend on maintaining stands of mature and old-growth coniferous forest of appropriate tree species composition with large-diameter snags. Without active management to restore appropriate fire regimes, restore late-seral stands over time, maintain continuous blocks of habitat, and protect snags from cutting (especially fire-wood cutting), habitat and populations will erode (e.g., Lehmkuhl et al. 1997).
Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Quality of habitat may be reflected in home range size. In central Oregon, Dixon (1995b) found that summer home ranges are larger and sizes are more variable in fragmented forests than continuous forests. In fragmented forests, woodpeckers used only a small portion of their entire home range (median 36 percent), and traveled over much unsuitable habitat to visit enough forest fragments to meet their needs. Woodpeckers with home ranges in continuous forests, however, had smaller home ranges and used the entire area (median 71 percent; Dixon 1995b).
Management Requirements: Will benefit from management that maintains and restores mature and old-growth pine and mixed-coniferous forest conditions, sustains large-diameter trees that produce an abundance of seeds, and retains large-diameter snags for nesting and roosting.
FOREST MANAGEMENT: Removal of large-diameter snags and live trees of preferred species will have adverse effects. Current snag retention guidelines and existing snag densities in some managed forests may be inadequate to support the species over time (e.g., Dixon 1995b). In the Interior Columbia River Basin, the species is considered at risk under proposed land management alternatives that would continue existing forest management strategies. Habitat could increase under management that involves restoration of mature forests and natural ecological processes (Lehmkuhl et al. 1997).
Maintaining large-diameter snags for nesting and roosting and live trees for snag recruitment and foraging and nesting habitat is essential. Depending on geographical area and local habitat preferences, particular attention should be given to retaining adequate numbers of preferred nesting and roosting tree species (ponderosa pine [PINUS PONDEROSA], Jeffrey pine [PINUS JEFFREYI], red fir [ABIES MAGNIFICA], white fir [A. CONCOLOR], quaking aspen [POPULUS TREMULOIDES]). Can persist in burned stands only as long as suitable snags and stumps remain (Raphael et al. 1987). U.S. Forest Service et al. (1993) recommend maintaining adequate numbers (0.24 per hectare) of large snags (more than 38-50 centimeter dbh, if possible) and green tree replacements for future snags (can be left in groups to reduce blowdown), in soft decay stages, in stands of ponderosa pine and mixed pine/Douglas-fir (PSEUDOTSUGA MENZIESII). Spahr et al. (1991) recommend retaining large snags (more than 58 centimeter dbh) in fairly advanced decay dispersed in clumps throughout an area, and at densities of 45 suitable snags per 40 hectares to support maximum woodpecker densities. Thomas et al. (1993, cited in Marshall 1997) recommend retaining all snags more than 51 centimeter dbh.
Interagency guidelines for conservation in Idaho recommend managing for: (1) late-seral ponderosa pine stands that contain more than or equal to 10 trees per 0.4 hectare that are more than or equal to 53 centimeter dbh, and more than or equal to 2 trees per 0.4 hectare that are more than or equal to 79 centimeter dbh; (2) continuous stands that are at least 60 hectares, and on average more than or equal to 100 hectares; (3) production of large pines more than 53 centimeters dbh by encouraging wide tree spacing, long rotations, use of prescribed fire. Fragmentation should be avoided and harvest methods that maintain an open canopy are preferred (Blair and Servheen 1993, cited in Marshall 1997).
In the Sierra Nevada, California, Milne and Hejl (1989) recommend retaining snags in an array of mostly larger size classes (13 percent in 20-40 centimeter dbh class, 40 percent in the 40-70 centimeter dbh class, 30 percent in the 70-100 centimeter dbh class, and 17 percent in the more than 100 centimeter dbh class, with an overall mean dbh between 70-80 centimeter dbh). Small diameter (less than 30 centimeter dbh) incense cedar (CALOCEDRUS DECURRENS) should also be retained as an important foraging tree, especially for winter use (Morrison et al. 1985, Morrison and With 1987).
In Oregon, Dixon (1995b) found that density of woodpeckers was positively correlated with amount of old-growth ponderosa pine forest. Also suggested were: retention of large-diameter ponderosa pine in an array of decay stages and habitat structures to support roosting and nesting habitat; provision of an average of 137 hectares of predominantly old-growth ponderosa pine for each pair of woodpeckers, or in fragmented habitat that contains at least 26 percent old-growth, retention of 288 hectares or more of habitat. Each habitat area should contain a minimum of 67 percent of old-growth ponderosa pine with a mean canopy closure of 56 percent, and more than 23 per hectare of large-diameter live ponderosa pine at least 68 centimeter dbh (Dixon 1995b).
May use high-cut stumps in some circumstances. Where snag hazard reduction is an issue (e.g., campgrounds, trails), snags may be high-cut at more than or equal to 2 meter to provide woodpecker nest sites, although these high-cut stumps should not be considered a substitute for more suitable tall nesting snags (Morrison et al. 1983, Dixon 1995b).
Management Research Needs: Further research is needed on habitat relationships throughout the range, particularly regarding landscape relationships, such as area sensitivity, effects of fragmentation and landscape composition. An inventory of suitable habitat is needed, as is an assessment of approaches and feasibility of restoring late-seral forest characteristics. Detailed study of habitat relationships such as that conducted in central Oregon is needed throughout the range. Information is needed on the effects of different silvicultural treatments and "forest health" treatments used to manage insect and disease outbreaks.
Biological Research Needs: Much of its biology and ecology remains unstudied. Research is needed on the demographic composition of populations, population stability, age of first breeding, life span, percentage of population that breeds, juvenile dispersal and mortality, survivorship, winter movements and habits, and variation in diet composition with season and across range.
