Pipilo chlorurus

Highlands of w US; > to central Mexico.

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations, but breeds in a single nation

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: BREEDING: southwestern and central Oregon, southeastern Washington, southern Idaho, southwestern Montana, Wyoming, south through interior mountains to southern California, southern Nevada, central Arizona, southern New Mexico (AOU 1983). Breeding documented from Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California (Erickson and Wurster 1998). NON-BREEDING: southern California, southern Arizona, western and southern Texas, south to southern Baja California and central Mexico (Jalisco, Guanajuato, Queretaro, Morelos, Hidalgo, San Luis Potosi, and Tamaulipas). Migrants range east to western Kansas, western Oklahoma, and west-central Texas (AOU 1983).

Length: 18 cm

Weight: 29 grams

Systems

• Terrestrial

Comments: BREEDING: Thickets, chaparral, shrublands, riparian scrub, and especially sagebrush (ARTEMISIA spp). Habitat varies with elevation. Primarily in mountains (AOU 1983, Dobbs et al. 1998). Found on mountain slopes, plateaus, and higher valleys of arid West, associated with dense shrubs 0.5 to 1.5 m in height; most commonly uses dry shrubby hillsides and post-disturbance shrubby second growth (Dobbs et al. 1998, Knopf et al. 1990). Occurs up to 2400 m in elevation in Great Basin; 3000 m in Arizona; between 2100 m and 3400 m in New Mexico (Bailey 1928, Ligon 1961, Rising 1996). Rarely found below 1200 m (Burleigh 1972). Apparently attracted to dwarf mistletoe as a nest, roost or foraging site in southwestern Ponderosa pine forests (Anonymous 1991). Nests on or near ground in shrubby habitat; nest is usually under cover of brush or plant tufts; built by the female.

Habitat is usually low shrubs, sometimes interspersed with trees; avoids typical forest, other than open pinyon-juniper woodlands (Dobbs et al. 1998). In pinyon-juniper, associated with sagebrush (ARTEMISIA spp) dominated openings with high shrub species richness (Sedgwick 1987); uses juniper for song perches (Maser and Gashwiler 1978). In shrub-steppe habitats prefers ecotones between sagebrush and other shrubby habitats, especially mountain mahogany (CERCOCARPUS spp); often select a central bush of another shrub species within sagebrush-dominated patches; high shrub patch vigor (percent live branches and standing herbaceous biomass) important to nesting microhabitat (Knopf et al. 1990). In northern Great Basin, uses tall sagebrush/bunchgrass, squaw/sagebrush/bunchgrass, mountain mahogany/bunchgrass, mountain mahogany/pinegrass and aspen/sagebrush/bunchgrass communities as primary breeding and foraging habitat (Maser et al. 1984). In Montana, found in sagebrush habitats and higher elevation shrubby second-growth (Hutto 1995). In Colorado, recorded in Gambel oak (QUERCUS GAMBELLI), aspen/willow and spruce/aspen habitats (Dobbs et al. 1998, Winternitz 1976). In Arizona, nests in dry, high-elevation sites dominated by shrubby New Mexico locust (ROBINA NEOMEXICANA) and small conifers under canopy of ponderosa pine (PINUS PONDEROSA) (Martin 1993b, Dobbs et al. 1998); also in shrubby understories of open riparian corridors and saltbush (ATRIPLEX) along field edges (Rosenberg et al. 1991). In Sierra Nevada, observed in high numbers in dense successional brushfield that developed 8 to 15 years after fire in a pine-fir forest (Bock et al. 1978). In Baja California, breeding birds observed in aspen and in meadow openings within mixed coniferous forest at 2700 m (Erickson and Wurster 1998).

NON-BREEDING: Primarily in lowland habitats (AOU 1983, Dobbs et al. 1998). In Mexico, found in dry desert habitat with acacia, mesquite, and creosote bush (R.L. Hutto reported in Dobbs et al. 1998). Possibly limited in habitat use by distribution of water. Unlike desert-adapted sparrows, towhees are not tolerant of saline water (Dobbs et al. 1998, Smith and Ohmart 1969).

Non-Migrant: No. All populations of this species make significant seasonal migrations.

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Migrates northward and to higher elevations late February-early May (Terres 1980), southward and to lower elevations September-October, with postfledging dispersal peaking in late August (Sierra Nevada). Observed as common in New Mexico throughout migration (Bailey 1928). Observed in desert washes (containing acacia, mesquite hackberry, creosote bush, willow and palo verde) during spring migration (Szaro and Jakle 1985). Observed in dense shrub habitats during spring on islands in Gulf of California, off southern Baja California (Emlen 1979). Juvenile birds may disperse to subalpine meadows, particularly in dry years where food is limited elsewhere (Morton 1991, Dobbs et al. 1998).

Comments: Feeds on seeds, berries, and insects. Forages on the ground by scratching beneath brush.

In Colorado, mean breeding density reported at 3.0 pairs per 40 ha in aspen/willow and spruce/aspen stands (Winternitz 1976).

Maximum longevity: 7.7 years (wild)

Clutch size two to four (usually four). Nestlings altricial and downy.

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

There are 3 barcode sequences available from BOLD and GenBank.  Below is a sequence of the barcode region Cytochrome oxidase subunit 1 (COI or COX1) from a member of the species.  See the BOLD taxonomy browser for more complete information about this specimen and other sequences.

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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 3
Specimens with Barcodes: 3
Species With Barcodes: 1

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2008
  Least Concern
• 2004
  Least Concern

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5B,N5N : N5B: Secure - Breeding, N5N: Secure - Nonbreeding

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Comments: HABITAT LOSS, FRAGMENTATION, DEGRADATION: In sagebrush shrub-steppe habitats, land conversion to cultivated croplands, sagebrush control, seeding with non-native grasses for livestock, wide-scale invasion of exotic annuals (e.g. cheatgrass), and high-intensity grazing have degraded and fragmented the sagebrush community mosaic and reduced habitat for sagebrush birds (Paige and Ritter 1998). Sagebrush shrub-steppe is in generally poor condition, and is under high threat of habitat loss, conversion and fragmentation (Saab and Rich 1997). Towhees show a strong preference for sagebrush habitats in many areas, and widespread alteration of sagebrush probably impacts the species, possibly altering the species' distribution (Dobbs et al. 1988). FIRE SUPPRESSION: Broad-scale fire suppression in this century and the reduction of post-fire successional habitats may be degrading towhee breeding habitat, particularly in montane coniferous forests, due to reduction in shrub layers and an increase in canopy shading (Dobbs et al. 1998, Bock et al. 1978, Hejl 1994). Mountain shrublands, prairie brush fields, and juniper woodlands are under moderate threats in many areas from high-intensity grazing, fire suppression, invasion of exotic species, and conversion to annual grasslands (Saab and Rich 1997). These activities would likely reduce towhee habitat, however there is no quantitative information on associated impacts on towhees. PREDATION: Mean predation rates for shrub nesting species in generalized shrub/grassland habitats 40% to 44% (Martin 1993a, Martin 1995). On Mogollon Rim, Arizona, observed > 75% nests failure due to nest predators (Dobbs et al. 1998, Martin and Li 1992). Reported predators include accipiters, peregrine falcon (FALCO PEREGRINUS), American kestrel (FALCO SPARVERIUS), long-eared owl (ASIO OTUS), red-tailed hawk (BUTEO JAMAICENSIS), Steller's jay (CYANOCITTA STELLERI), black-billed magpie (PICA PICA), red squirrel (TAMIASCIURUS HUDSONICUS), least chipmunk (EUTAMIAS MINIMUS), long-tailed weasel (MUSTELA FRENATA, striped skunk (MEPHITIS MEPHITIS), spotted skunk (SPILOGALE PUTORIUS), and gopher snake (PITUOPHIS MELANOLEUCUS) (Dobbs et al. 1998). COMPETITION: One record of aggression with fox sparrow (PASSERELLA ILIACA) over song perches, ending in mutual tolerance (Clark 1932). BROOD PARASITISM: Recorded as an occasional host of brown-headed cowbird (MOLOTHRUS ATER) (Friedmann et al. 1977, Ehrlich et al. 1988, Dobbs et al. 1998). Mean cowbird parasitism rates for shrub-nesting species in generalized shrub/grassland habitats 15% (Martin 1993a, 1993b), but extent of parasitism unknown.

Restoration Potential: Still widespread and attention to maintaining habitat (i.e., species-rich shrublands) should help sustain the species.

Management Requirements: Activities that promote species-rich shrub habitats (e.g. sagebrush, mountain mahogany, chaparral, mesquite) with high shrub vigor should benefit habitat. Sagebrush control with burning, chaining, or herbicides eliminates habitat, and management for natural sagebrush mosaics interspersed with other shrub species and shrub habitats should favor the species (Braun et al. 1976, Knopf et al. 1990, Paige and Ritter 1998). Towhees can benefit from burns, timber harvest, and other management activities where post-fire or post-harvest habitats develop into brushfields (see Bock and Lynch 1970, Bock et al. 1978, Franzreb and Ohmart 1978, Raphael et al. 1988, Sedgwick 1987).

Management Research Needs: Details of population status and trends, habitat trends, and demographics poorly known. No information on impacts of grazing; burning or chaining of juniper woodlands; sagebrush control programs; invasive species; or alteration of herbaceous vegetation composition. More research needed on association with post-fire habitats, ecology of shrub communities. Wintering habitat and ecology poorly known. No information on landscape-scale patterns of habitat use; effects of habitat fragmentation; habitat patch size and connectivity requirements. No information on direct or indirect effects of pesticides or other contaminants. Little information on tolerance to disturbance. No information on limits to survival.

Biological Research Needs: Further research needed on population demographics and regulation, predation, brood parasitism, diseases, inter-species competition, migration and wintering habitat use, and nutrition and energetics (see Dobbs et al. 1998).

Stewardship Overview: Relatively common in shrubland habitats throughout the West, but is poorly known. Broad-scale habitat alterations, such as sagebrush (ARTEMISIA spp) conversion and degradation and fire suppression, could be limiting habitat in some regions, and affecting the distribution pattern; however other anthropogenic changes, such as timber harvest and juniper control that promote brushy seral habitats, may be augmenting habitat for towhees. There is indication of long-term population declines in eastern and western portions of the range. Deserves greater attention to better understand its habitat relationships, habitat and population trends, and conservation needs.