Puma concolor

Historically, mountain lions had the most extensive distribution of all American terrestrial mammals. They ranged from coast to coast in North America, and from southern Argentina and Chile to southeastern Alaska. Extermination efforts, hunting pressure, and habitat destruction have restricted their range to relatively mountainous, unpopulated areas throughout much of their range. Populations in eastern North America were entirely exterminated, except for a small population of Florida panthers (Puma concolor coryi). In recent years populations have begun to expand into areas of human habitation, especially in the western United States. Mountain lions are now fairly common in suburban areas of California and have recently been sighted as far east as urban Kansas City, Missouri, where several have been hit by cars. Mountain lion sightings in eastern North America, outside of southern Florida, are still more likely to be escaped or abandoned "pet" mountain lions or other large cats.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

Historically, mountain lions had the largest distribution of all American terrestrial mammals. They ranged from coast to coast in North America, and from southern Argentina and Chile, in South America, to southeastern Alaska. Extermination efforts, hunting pressure, and habitat destruction have isolated populations of mountain lions to relatively mountainous, unpopulated areas throughout much of their range. Populations in eastern North America were entirely exterminated, except for a small population of Florida panthers (Puma_concolor_coryi). In recent years populations have begun to expand into areas of human habitation, especially in the western United States. Mountain lions are now fairly common in suburban areas of California and have recently been sighted as far east as urban Kansas City, Missouri, where several have been hit by cars. Mountain lion sightings in eastern North America, outside of southern Florida, are still more likely to be escaped or abandoned "pet" mountain lions or other large cats.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

AL AK AZ AR CA CO CT DE FL GA ID IL IA KS KY MD MA MI MN MS MO MT NE NV NH NJ NM NC ND OK OR PA SC SD TN TX UT VT VA WA WV WI WY

AB BC MB NT ON SK YK

MEXICO

The geographic range of the puma is the largest of any terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere (Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), from Canada through the US, Central and South America to the southern tip of Chile. While the puma is an adaptable cat, being found in every major habitat type of the Americas, including the high Andes (5,800 m in southern Peru: Sunquist and Sunquist 2002), it was eliminated from the entire eastern half of North America within 200 years following European colonization (Nowell and Jackson, 1996). A remnant Endangered subpopulation persists in Florida, and records of pumas in northeastern Canada and the eastern US are on the rise, indicating possible recolonization (M. Kelly pers. comm. 2007).

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Historically had widest distribution of any native American mammal (other than humans); from Canada south to southern Chile and southern Argentina and from the Pacific to the Atlantic coast. In eastern North America, now definitely known to occur only in southern Florida and Upper Peninsula of Michigan (Evers 1992). Possibly a small population exists in southeastern Canada; see Stocek (1995) for a review of recent reports from the Maritime Provinces. Elsewhere in North America, currently restricted mainly to mountainous, relatively unpopulated areas. Sea level to 14,800 ft.

Widespread, ranging from areas in Canada, down through the United States, south to Central and South America. However, the species' range has greatly retracted, having been eliminated from the almost the entire eastern half of Northern America following European colonisation (1).

Pumas are solitary cats, with the exception of one to six day associations during mating periods and contact between females and their young (8). Males occupy large territories that overlap those of several females; the boundaries of the territory are marked by scrapes left in prominent positions (3). Females advertise their receptivity to mating with loud scream-like calls (5). Mating occurs year-round, but is concentrated from December to March in northern latitudes (8). The female gives birth to her litter of between one and six kittens within a den; the kittens are initially blind and helpless, remaining in the den whilst their mother forages for food (3) (8). At around two months of age they are able to accompany their mother on hunting forays and remain with her until around 1.5 to 2 years old (9). Pumas are primarily nocturnal and crepuscular, being most active at dawn and dusk, and rarely emerging in the day (3). These agile yet powerful cats hunt by stalking and ambushing their prey (6). Pumas predominantly feed on ungulates, but are known to occasionally take smaller prey (10). In the northern areas of their range, they feed primarily on large ungulates, including elk and occasionally domestic cattle, whereas in tropical areas their diet seems to consist of more medium-sized prey (10).

Cougars avoid open habitats such as flat, shrubless deserts and farm fields, but can make a living in swamps, forests, and desert scrub habitat. They live solitary lives at low population densities, and usually avoid humans, but about four attacks are reported annually in the United States and Canada. Cougars hunt at night, either stalking their prey or waiting in ambush to pounce. They take hoofed mammals, sometimes including domestic livestock, and other prey, including rabbits, hares, porcupines, bobcats, coyotes, beavers, opossums, skunks, and even other Cougars. They rarely bed down in the same place two days in a row unless they are watching young or consuming a large kill. Some states and provinces allow Cougars to be hunted for sport

Links:
Mammal Species of the World
  More images, video and sound of the Florida panther, a subspecies

Other than man, this large, slender cat has the greatest natural distribution of any terrestrial mammal in the Western Hemisphere (5). The puma, also known as the cougar, mountain lion and panther, is powerfully built and extremely agile. These cats are characterised by a long body with unusually long hindlimbs, thought to be an adaptation to bursts of high-speed running and jumping, used to chase and ambush prey (5) (6). The cat has a long neck, a small, broad head, short, rounded ears that are black on the back, and a long, cylindrical tail with a black tip (5) (6). The coat is of uniform colour, hence the Latin name, concolor, varying from silvery-grey through tawny-yellow to light reddish brown (3) (7). The throat, chest and belly are a pale buff to whitish colour (8) and the sides of the muzzle are framed in black (5). Faint horizontal stripes may occasionally be seen on the upper forelegs, and melanism has been widely reported though not confirmed (3) (5). Young kittens are spotted, with blue eyes (3). Males rarely weigh more than 100 kilograms, and depending on sex and age, tend to be larger in the north of their range (3), and the coat is generally longer to insulate against extreme temperatures (7).

Mountain lions are large, slender cats. The fur is short, coarse, and ranges from yellowish brown to grayish brown on the upper parts and a paler, almost buffy, color on the belly. The throat and chest are whitish. Mountain lions have a pinkish nose with a black border that extends to the lips. The muzzle stripes, the area behind ears, and the tip of tail are black. The eyes of adult animals are grayish brown to golden. The tail is long, cylindrical, and about one-third of total body length. The limbs are short and muscular. The feet are broad, with four digits on hind feet and five on forefeet. The retractile claws are sharp and curved. The skull is broad and short, with a high, arched forehead and massive teeth modified for grabbing and slicing prey.

Males are larger than females. Head and body length ranges from 1020 to 1540 mm in males and 860 to 1310 mm in females. Tail length ranges from 680 to 960 mm in males and 630 to 790 mm in females. Males weigh from 36 to 120 kg and females from 29 to 64 kg.

Range mass: 29 to 120 kg.

Range length: 860 to 1540 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 49.326 W.

Mountain lions are large, slender cats. The pelage has a short and coarse texture. The general coloration ranges from a yellowish brown to grayish brown on the upper parts and a paler, almost buffy, color on the belly. The throat and chest are whitish. Mountain lions have a pinkish nose with a black border that extends to the lips. The muzzle stripes, the area behind ears, and the tip of tail are black. The eyes of mature animals are grayish brown to golden. The tail is long, cylindrical, and about one-third of the animal's total length. The limbs are short and muscular. The feet are broad, with four digits on hind feet and five on forefeet. The pollex is small and set above the other digits. The retractile claws are sharp and curved. The skull is noticeably broad and short. The forehead region is high and arched. The rostrum and the nasal bones are broad. The dental formula is 3/3 1/1 3/2 1/1. The mandible is short, deep, and powerfully constructed. The carnassial teeth are massive and long. The canines are heavy and compressed. The incisors are small and straight. Mountain lions have one more small premolar on each side of the upper jaw than do bobcats and lynx.

Males are larger than females. Head and body length ranges from 1020 to 1540 mm in males and 860 to 1310 mm in females. Tail length ranges from 680 to 960 mm in males and 630 to 790 mm in females. Males weigh from 36 to 120 kg and females from 29 to 64 kg.

Range mass: 29 to 120 kg.

Range length: 860 to 1540 mm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger

Average basal metabolic rate: 49.326 W.

Length: 274 cm

Weight: 120000 grams

Sexual Dimorphism: Males are significantly heavier than females.

Length:
Average: 1,270 mm males; 1,140 mm females
Range: 1,020-1,540 mm males; 860-1,310 mm females

Weight:
Average: 62 kg males; 42 kg females
Range: 36-120 kg males; 29-64 kg females

Differs from the jaguarundi in much larger size (maximum total length of jaguarundi is 137 cm). Differs from the lynx and bobcat in having a much longer tail (less than 25 cm in bobcat and lynx). Differs from other cats in lack of spotting in adult pelage. Young mountain lion differs from the ocelot in having the spot not arranged in rows or chainlike streaks. See Hoffmeister (1986) for cranial differences between mountain lion and jaguar.

Mountain lions use a wide variety of habitats including montane coniferous forests, lowland tropical forests, grassland, dry brush country, swamps, and any areas with adequate cover and prey. Dense vegetation, caves, and rocky crevices provide shelter.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural ; riparian

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Mountain lions use a wide variety of habitats including montane coniferous forests, lowland tropical forests, grassland, dry brush country, swamps, and any areas with adequate cover and prey. Dense vegetation, caves, and rocky crevices provide shelter.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical ; terrestrial

Terrestrial Biomes: desert or dune ; savanna or grassland ; chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest ; mountains

Other Habitat Features: suburban ; agricultural ; riparian

Comments: Now associated generally with mountainous or remote undisturbed areas. May occupy wide variety of habitats: swamps, riparian woodlands, broken country with good cover of brush or woodland. Beier (1993) determined that habitat areas of at least 2200 sq km are needed to ensure long-term population persistence; protection of corridors for immigration is highly desirable. Young are born in secluded places among rocks or dense vegetation (e.g., see Beier et al. 1995, Bleich et al. 1996).

The puma is highly adaptable, found in a diverse range of habitats, from arid desert to tropical rainforest to cold coniferous forest, from sea level up to 5,800 metres in the Andes (3) (5). Studies have shown that habitat with dense understorey vegetation is preferred, but these cats can also live in open areas with sparse vegetative cover (3). Although terrestrial, pumas can swim and climb trees when they need to (5).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

In Idaho, migrates between fairly distinct but usually contiguous winter-spring and summer-fall home areas (Seidensticker et al. 1973). In California, some lions migrated together, often slowly, following movements of mule deer, between winter and summer ranges; other lions migrated quickly, crossed the Sierra Nevada crest, and summered in a disjunct range with lions not sharing their winter range (Pierce et al. 1999).

Mountain lions are carnivores. Their main prey throughout their range are different species of ungulates, including moose, elk, white-tailed deer, mule deer, and caribou in North America. They will also eat smaller creatures like squirrels, muskrat, porcupine, beaver, raccoon, striped skunk, coyote, bobcats, other mountain lions, rabbits, opossums, birds, and even snails and fish. They may also prey on domestic livestock, including poultry, calves, sheep, goats, and pigs. Mountain lions have a distinctive manner of hunting larger prey. The lion quietly stalks the prey animals, then leaps at close range onto their back and breaks the animal's neck with a powerful bite below the base of the skull. Yearly food consumption is between 860 to 1,300 kg of large prey animals, about 48 ungulates per lion per year. Mountain lions cache large prey, dragging it up to 350 meters from the place of capture and burying it under leaves and debris. They return nightly to feed.

Animal Foods: birds; mammals; fish; mollusks

Foraging Behavior: stores or caches food

Primary Diet: carnivore (Eats terrestrial vertebrates)

Comments: Primary food is deer in many areas. Highly opportunistic, also eats various large and small mammals (bighorn sheep, livestock, coyote, squirrels, rabbits, mice, etc.), insects, and reptiles. In Peru and Chile, rodents and lagomorphs, respectively, were important prey (see Hansen 1992). Unused remains of prey are covered for later consumption. Stalks prey from ground. In southern California, on average, an adult killed about 48 large and 58 small mammals per year and fed for an average of 2.9 days on a single large mammal (Beier et al. 1995).

Biologists working near the North Fork of the Flathead River, Montana,
have reported gray wolves (Canis lupus) killing mountain lions as well
as driving them from prey [37]. Adult male mountain lions are known to
kill mountain lion kittens and sometimes eat them [12,30,56]. Adult
female mountain lions are occasionally killed by other mountain lions
[30].

Mountain lions are important as top predators in the ecosystems in which they live. They are instrumental in controlling populations of large ungulates.

Mountain lions are top predators. They may be preyed on by other mountain lions, wolves, or bear when they are young or ill.

Known Predators:

• mountain lions (Puma concolor)
• gray wolves (Canis lupus)
• bears (Ursidae)

Puma concolor is prey of:
Ursidae
Canis lupus
Puma concolor

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Puma concolor preys on:
Erethizontidae
Equus caballus
Odocoileus
Actinopterygii
Mollusca
Aves
Mammalia
Ursus americanus
Nasua nasua
Vulpes vulpes
Cervus elaphus
Odocoileus virginianus
Puma concolor
Mazama gouazoupira
Myrmecophaga tridactyla

Based on studies in:
USA: Arizona (Forest, Montane)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: 81 to >300

10,000 to >1,000,000 individuals

Comments: Total U.S. population was stated as 15,000 by Nowak (1976).

Primarily solitary in some areas, extensive overlap of home ranges in other areas (see Pierce et al. 1999). In Idaho, mutual avoidance maintains density of breeding adults below level set by food supply.

Annual home range varies greatly in different areas (13-1454 sq km); home range of male (generally 200 to several hundred sq km) averages larger than that of female (Kitchener 1991; Pierce et al. 1999; see also Hansen 1992 for interstate comparisons of home range size). See Beier et al. (1995) for information on movements in the Santa Ana Mountains, southern California. See Laing and Lindzey (1993, J. Mamm. 74:1056-1058) for information on replacement of individuals on vacated home ranges in Utah.

Density usually not greater than 3-4 adults per 100 sq km (8-10 per 100 sq mi) (Kitchener 1991).

Annual mortality rate in an unhunted population in Utah was 26%, over 50% in resident adults in a hunted population in Montana (see Hansen 1992).

Mountain lions rely mainly on vision, smell, and hearing. They use low-pitched hisses, growls, purrs, yowls, and screams in different circumstances. Loud, chirping whistles by young serves to call the mother. Touch is important in social bonding between mother and young. Scent marking is important in advertising territory boundaries and willingness to mate.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Mountain lions rely mainly on vision, smell, and hearing. They use low-pitched hisses, growls, purrs, yowls, and screams in different circumstances. Loud, chirping whistles by young serves to call the mother. Touch is important in social bonding between mother and young. Scent marking is important in advertising territory boundaries and reproductive state.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Active throughout the year. Active any time, day or night, but most hunting occurs dawn or dusk (Jones et al. 1983). Peak activity within 2 hours of sunset and sunrise in absence of human disturbance; near human presence, activity peaks after sunset.

Mountain lions may live up to 18 to 20 years in the wild. They can live slightly longer in captivity.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 18 to 20 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20.0 years.

Mountain lions may live up to 18 to 20 years in the wild. They can live slightly longer in captivity.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 18 to 20 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 20.0 years.

Maximum longevity: 23.8 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, these animals have been estimated to live up to 18 years (Bernhard Grzimek 1990). One captive specimen was still alive at 23.8 years of age (Richard Weigl 2005).

Males maintain territories that overlap with those of several females. They attempt to dominate matings with those females.

Mountain lions begin mating when they have established their own territory. Females make sounds and rub themselves against objects to advertise to local males that they are ready to mate.

Mating System: polygynous

Mating occurs throughout the year, but is concentrated from December to March in northern parts of their range. Females are pregnant for 82 to 96 days and give birth to 1 to 6 kittens, with an average of 3. Kittens weigh 226 to 453 grams at birth, their eyes and ears are closed and they have no teeth. At 10 days old they open their eyes, their ears unfold, their first teeth erupt, and they begin to play with their litter mates. They nurse for about 40 days. Mother and cubs remain together for as long as 26 months, though the average is 15 months. Males generally move farther, once they've left their mother, than do females. Males are ready to breed at about 3 years of age and females at 2 1/2 years.

Breeding interval: Individual female mountain lions usually give birth every two years.

Breeding season: Mating throughout the year, in northern parts of their range mating is more concentrated from December to March.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 6.

Average number of offspring: 2.9.

Range gestation period: 84 to 106 days.

Average gestation period: 92.3 days.

Range weaning age: 28 (low) days.

Average weaning age: 40 days.

Range time to independence: 12 (high) months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.5 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization (Internal ); viviparous

Average birth mass: 400 g.

Average number of offspring: 2.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 912 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 912 days.

Mother mountain lions care for and nurse their young until they are about a year old. The young are born helpless and are protected by the mother in a sheltered area until they are big enough to roam and begin to learn and practice hunting skills.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

Males maintain territories that overlap with those of several females. They attempt to dominate matings with those females.

A mountain lion in the wild will not mate until it has established a home territory. When the female is in estrous, she vocalizes freely and frequently rubs against nearby objects. The male responds with similar yowls and sniffs the female's genital area. The highest frequency of copulation was nine times in one hour. A single copulatory act lasts less than one minute. There is a 67% chance of conception per mated estrous

Mating System: polygynous

Courtship and mating occurs throughout the year, but is concentrated from December to March in northern latitudes. Gestation periods last from 82 to 96 days. A female mountain lion can come into estrus any time of the year. Estrus lasts about nine days. Females usually give birth every other year. After six cycles without mating, the female has a lull for two months before coming into estrous again. Males remain reproductively active to at least an age of 20 years, and females to at least an age of 12 years. Litters vary in size from 1 to 6 cubs with an average of 3 or 4. Birth weight is between 226 to 453 grams. The cubs open their eyes 10 days after birth. At the same time their ear pinnae unfolds, their first teeth erupt, and they begin play. The cubs are fully weaned at about 40 days of age. Mother and cubs remain together for as long as 26 months, though the average is 15 months. Male young disperse from 23 to 274 km, while females disperse from 9 to 140 km. Males reach sexual maturity at about 3 years of age and females at 2 1/2 years.

Breeding interval: Individual female mountain lions usually give birth every two years.

Breeding season: Mating throughout the year, in northern parts of their range mating is more concentrated from December to March.

Range number of offspring: 1 to 6.

Average number of offspring: 2.9.

Range gestation period: 84 to 106 days.

Average gestation period: 92.3 days.

Range weaning age: 28 (low) days.

Average weaning age: 40 days.

Range time to independence: 12 (high) months.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.5 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 3 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; year-round breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization (Internal ); viviparous

Average birth mass: 400 g.

Average number of offspring: 2.5.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 912 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 912 days.

Mother mountain lions care for and nurse their young until they are about a year old. The young are born helpless and are protected by the mother in a sheltered area until they are big enough to roam and begin to learn and practice hunting skills.

Parental Investment: altricial ; female parental care ; post-independence association with parents; extended period of juvenile learning

Gestation lasts about 82-100 days. In the Northern Hemisphere most births occur in April-September, may occur throughout the year in Arizona. Litter size is 1-6 (usually 2-3). Young are weaned after 2-3 months. First reproduction usually occurs at 2-3 years. Young remain with mother for 1-2 years. Usually 2 years between litters (sometimes 1 year if litter does not survive). In the wild, probably few live beyond 10 years.

Florida panthers and eastern pumas are listed as Endangered [61].

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 2002
  Near Threatened
• 1996
  Lower Risk/least concern

Some subspecies are listed in CITES Appendix I; all others are Appendix II. Some populations are listed as Endangered under the Endangered Species Act. Two populations listed as endangered under the Endangered Species Act are considered extinct (Puma concolor schorgeri and Puma concolor couguar). Puma concolor coryi, Florida panthers, and Puma concolor costaricensis are considered endangered and extant.

US Federal List: endangered

CITES: appendix i; appendix ii

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N4 - Apparently Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Widely distributed from Canada to South America; habitat has been reduced to primarily the most remote and inaccessible areas, but the species remains relatively common (for a top predator) in several regions of the western U.S. (game species in some states) and probably elsewhere to the south of the U.S.

Classified as Least Concern (LC) on the IUCN Red List (1), and listed on Appendix II of CITES (3). Subspecies: Puma concolor coryi (Florida puma), P. c. couguar (Eastern puma)and P. c. costaricensis are listed on Appendix I of CITES (4). A number of other subspecies exist, but are not classified separately on the IUCN Red List.

Two subspecies P. concolor coryi, the Florida Panther, and P. concolor cougar, the Eastern Cougar, are Critically Endangered; the parent species is Near Threatened.

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Degree of Threat: B : Moderately threatened throughout its range, communities provide natural resources that when exploited alter the composition and structure of the community over the long-term, but are apparently recoverable

Comments: Decline in range and abundance was due in part to federal predator control efforts augmented by state bounty programs. Loss of remote, undisturbed habitat is a problem in some areas. Excessive killing by humans may be a problem in some areas south of the U.S. Depleted ungulate populations are a potential threat.

Across their range, pumas have been considered a threat to livestock and persecuted because of this (1). Indeed, the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service estimate that a minimum of 66,665 pumas were killed between 1907 and 1978. Additionally, pumas are one of the few large predators in Northern America that it is legal to hunt for sport and chase with dogs (5). This species is particularly vulnerable because it takes to trees when hunted, effectively becoming trapped (3). Pumas are also considered a potential danger to humans, especially children (8), although pumas almost never attack people (5). With people settling in more remote areas and with legal protection of the cat, the potential for conflict between humans and pumas arises, and there is a concern that pumas will lose their fear of being close to humans. In California and Florida, many animals are killed by vehicles as heavily travelled roads divide populations and even the home ranges of individual pumas. Loss and fragmentation of habitat also poses significant threats to the puma's future survival; in particular the Florida puma, which faces the serious problem of reduced genetic diversity associated with inbreeding, which in turn reduces resistance to disease or environmental change, and adversely affects fertility (7).

Conservation Actions

Preserve Selection and Design Considerations: Protection and maintenance of migratory corridors may be important in some areas (Pierce et al. 1999).

Management Requirements: See Moorhead and Hofstra (1994) on the management of lion-human encounters in national parks (persons encountering a lion should stand their ground, not run, be assertive, keep their eyes on the animal, not play dead, and fight back, if necessary).

See Ross and Jalkotzy (1995) for information on the fate of relocated individuals in Alberta.

Biological Research Needs: Determine minimum habitat needs.

Global Protection: Few to several (1-12) occurrences appropriately protected and managed

Comments: Several populations are protected through management as a game species in various western states.

Needs: Protect remote areas supporting viable populations. Repeal bounty laws (if any).

The puma is protected over much of its range. Hunting is prohibited in Argentina, Brazil, Bolivia, Chile, Colombia, Costa Rica, French Guiana, Guatemala, Honduras, Nicaragua, Panama, Paraguay, Suriname, Venezuela and Uruguay, and hunting regulations exist in Canada, Mexico, Peru and the United States (1). However, there still remains no legal protection in Ecuador, El Salvador, and Guyana. Due to its critically low numbers, the Florida puma has been the focus of a particularly concerted and multi-faceted conservation programme, but this has been a complex and expensive task (3) with the aim of achieving three viable self-sustaining wild populations within the puma's former range. Remaining viable tracts of habitat are being conserved and connected by corridors, and the impact of a major highway has been lessened by the construction of underpasses for the safe travel of pumas in the area (9). In 1995, wildlife managers controversially introduced several female pumas from Texas into Florida in an effort to increase genetic diversity. This is thought by many to have alleviated a number of problems associated with inbreeding amongst Florida pumas (6). The levels of prey species are being monitored, wild pumas have been vaccinated against diseases and a captive breeding programme has been established (1). Fortunately, despite conflict with ranchers and concern over the dangers pumas may pose to humans, there appears to be strong overall public support for the cat in North America. The fact that there is a genuine desire by many people to find ways to coexist with the puma is an encouraging step towards promoting positive conservation actions and protecting this beautiful cat (3).

Although mountain lions are secretive and generally avoid humans, they sometimes attack humans. Attacks are usually on small adults and children traveling alone during dawn, dusk, or at night. It is thought that mountain lions mistake these humans for their ungulate prey. Mountain lions are also considered threats to domestic stock. These threats are sometimes exaggerated. It is helpful to learn more about mountain lion behavior in order to avoid encounters.

Negative Impacts: injures humans (bites or stings)

Mountain lions have considerable trophy value and are hunted for sport. They are also captured to be put in zoos. Mountain lions are important to humans in their role as top predators, helping to control populations of ungulates.

Positive Impacts: body parts are source of valuable material; research and education; controls pest population

Comments: In 1989-1990, the sport harvest was 2176 in the western U.S. and western Canada (Hansen 1992). Sometimes preys on domestic livestock.