Secale cereale

Rye (Secale cereale) is an important cereal crop in the cooler parts of northern and central Europe and Russia, cultivated up to the Arctic Circle and to 4000 m above sea level. The broad area of production includes Russia, Poland, Germany, Argentina, South Africa, Canada, and the United States. Rye is extremely hardy and can grow in sandy soils of low fertility. It is more tolerant of drought, cold, and other adverse growing conditions than are other cereal crops, is more winter hardy than all other small grains, and exhibits a greater amount of fall and early spring growth than do wheat (Triticum) or Oats (Avena sativa). Although spring and winter biotypes of Rye exist, most of the world supply is obtained from winter varieties. Cereal Rye is grown for grain, forage, hay, and as a weed-suppressing cover crop.

Because cereal rye matures earlier than other small grains, strict harvest and grazing management procedures are important to prevent it from becoming a weed. Feral rye is a serious problem in winter annual grain production in the western and central United States (feral plants are plants that are derived in part or fully from crop plants that have become partly or fully undomesticated, meaning they can reproduce on their own and are not dependent on managed cultivation). Feral rye is considered a weed of wheat and Barley (Hordeum vulgare) fields and was likely spread as a contaminant in the seed of domesticated cereals as they were introduced into new areas.

Rye was probably domesticated in eastern Turkey and Armenia, but more recently than wheat. In all Rye-producing countries more than 50% of the grain is used in animal feed, but it is also important in human nutrition. Rye is used in making "black bread", including pumpernickel, although the bread color may vary since the rye flour is often mixed with wheat flour, which lightens the color and adds gluten. Like wheat flour, rye flour can be used to make leavened bread, but the dough is less elastic and retains less carbon dioxide. Rye bread has a generally stronger flavor than wheat bread, has fewer calories, has a higher mineral and fiber content, and has a higher lysine content. A "sourdough process" involving lactic acid fermentation may be used in bread-making. (e.g., for "crisp bread"). Rye is used to make whiskey in the United States, gin in the Netherlands, and beer in Russia. Young plants are used as fodder for livestock. The mature straw is too tough for animal fodder, but can be used for bedding, thatching, paper making, and straw hats.

Ergot (Claviceps purpurea) is a fungus that parasitizes Rye and is poisonous to humans and livestock. Eating rye bread contaminated with Ergot may cause a range of disturbing symptoms.

(Vaughan and Geissler 1997; White et al. 2006)

Cereal rye is an erect annual grass, with flat leaf blades and dense flower spikes. Each large spike consists of many 2-flowered spikelets with long awns. The grain is relatively large, typically around ½ inch long. There are 18,000 seeds per pound.

Secale cereale L.:
Argentina (South America)
Australia (Oceania)
Brazil (South America)
Canada (North America)
Chile (South America)
Costa Rica (Mesoamerica)
Ecuador (South America)
Greenland (North America)
India (Asia)
Mexico (Mesoamerica)
Peru (South America)
Uruguay (South America)
United States (North America)
China (Asia)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Canada

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Exotic

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

The cultivar ‘Aroostook’ is expected to produce a satisfactory stand as a late seeded cover crop if a minimum of 260-350 growing degree days (base 40 degrees F) remain after seeding. While ‘Aroostook’ was developed primarily for use in northern climates, it is widely adapted as a cover crop and forage producer outside the Northeast.

Cereal rye is distributed throughout the United States. For a current distribution map, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Website.

Culms erect, 80–180 cm tall, scabrous or villous below spike. Leaf blade glaucous, 10–20 × (0.2–)0.5–1 cm, glabrous or abaxial surface sparsely pilose. Spike erect, 5–15 × 1–1.5 cm excluding awns; rachis tough. Spikelets ca. 15 mm excluding awns, with 2(or 3) florets. Glumes linear or linear-lanceolate, 10–12 mm, scabrous along keels, margin membranous, apex usually acuminate. Lemma strongly compressed, 12–15 mm, pectinately spinose-ciliate along keels; awn 30–50 mm. Palea equaling lemma. Fl. and fr. Jul–Aug. 2n = 14.

Annuals, Terrestrial, not aquatic, Stems nodes swollen or brittle, Stems erect or ascending, Stems caespitose, tufted, or clustered, Stems terete, round in cross section, or polygonal, Stem internodes hollow, Stems with inflorescence less than 1 m tall, Stems with inflorescence 1-2 m tall, Stems, culms, or scapes exceeding basal leaves, Leaves mostly cauline, Leaves conspicuously 2-ranked, d istichous, Leaves sheathing at base, Leaf sheath mostly open, or loose, Leaf sheath smooth, glabrous, Leaf sheath and blade differentiated, Leaf blades linear, Leaf blade auriculate, Leaf blades 2-10 mm wide, Leaf blades mostly flat, Leaf blades mostly glabrous, Leaf blades more or less hairy, Ligule present, Ligule an unfringed eciliate membrane, Inflorescence terminal, Inflorescence racemose, Inflorescence simple spikes, Inflorescence solitary, with 1 spike, fascicle, glomerule, head, or cluster per stem or culm, Inflorescence spike linear or cylindric, several times longer than wide, Inflorescence single raceme, fascicle or spike, Inflorescence spikelets arranged in a terminal bilateral spike, Peduncle or rachis scabrous or pubescent, often with long hairs, Flowers bisexual, Spikelets sessile or subsessile, Spikelets laterally compressed, Spikelet 3-10 mm wide, Spikelet less than 3 mm wide, Spikelets with 2 florets, Spikelets solitary at rachis nodes, Spikelets disticho usly arranged, Spikelets all alike and fertille, Spikelets bisexual, Spikelets disarticulating above the glumes, glumes persistent, Spikelets disarticulating beneath or between the florets, Spikelets closely appressed or embedded in concave portions of axis, Rachilla or pedicel hairy, Glumes present, empty bracts, Glumes 2 clearly present, Glumes equal or subequal, Glumes shorter than adjacent lemma, Glumes awn-like, elongated or subulate, Glumes keeled or winged, Glumes 1 nerved, Lemma similar in texture to glumes, Lemma coriaceous, firmer or thicker in texture than the glumes, Lemma 5-7 nerved, Lemma body or surface hairy, Lemma apex acute or acuminate, Lemma distinctly awned, more than 2-3 mm, Lemma with 1 awn, Lemma awn 2-4 cm long or longer, Lemma awned from tip, Lemma awns straight or curved to base, Lemma margins thin, lying flat, Lemma straight, Palea present, well developed, Palea membranous, hyaline, Palea shorter than lemma, Palea 2 nerved or 2 keeled, Palea keels winged, scabrous, or ciliate, Stamens 3, Styles 2-fid, deeply 2-branched, Stigmas 2, Fruit - caryopsis, Caryopsis ellipsoid, longitudinally grooved, hilum long-linear, Caryopsis hairy at apex.

is the cultivated rye. It is, apparently, rarely grown in Pakistan although there are records of it from Baluchistan, N.W.F.P. and Kashmir. It resembles S. segetale but has a tough rhachis.

Culm up to 50-100 cm tall, 2 mm in diameter. Blade narrowly linear-lanceolate, 20-30 cm long, 6-15 mm wide; ligule minute, 0.5 mm long, truncate; auricle present. Spike cylindrical, flat, 10-15 mm long excluding the awn.Spikelets with 2fertile florets, 10 mm long; glumes very narrow, subulate, subequal, 1-3-nerved, shortly awn-tipped, 18 mm long; lemma deltoid-lanceolate, 5-nerved, hispid along midnerve and margins, as long as the spikelet, long awned; palea deltoid-lanceolate, as long as the lemma, 2-keeled, margins overlapping, truncate, minutely ciliate.

Triticum cereale (Linnaeus) Salisbury (1796), not Schrank (1789); T. secale Link.

Cultivated. Anhui, Fujian, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei,Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Shaanxi, Taiwan, Xinjiang, Yunnan [widely cultivated elsewhere].

The best method to plant ‘Aroostook’ following potatoes, corn, soybeans, and other row crops, is to drill the seed one inch deep using a conventional grain drill equipped with packer wheels. Another satisfactory method is to broadcast the seed followed by a shallow disking or harrowing and cultipacking. Use a minimum of 2 bushels per acre (110 to 120 lb/acre). ‘Aroostook’ rye can also be aerial seeded in standing corn or other row crops. Aerial seeding is very dependent on favorable weather for success. For very late plantings or aerial seedings, 3 bushels per acre is recommended. No seed treatment is recommended.

Foodplant / miner
larva of Agromyza ambigua mines leaf of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / miner
larva of Agromyza intermittens mines leaf of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / miner
larva of Agromyza nigrella mines leaf of Secale cereale

Foodplant / miner
larva of Agromyza nigrociliata mines leaf of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / miner
solitary larva of Agromyza rondensis mines leaf of Secale cereale

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / feeds on
pycnidium of Ascochyta coelomycetous anamorph of Ascochyta hordei var. europaea feeds on Secale cereale

Foodplant / parasite
Blumeria graminis parasitises live Secale cereale

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Cephus pygmeus feeds within stem of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Plant / resting place / within
puparium of Chromatomyia nigra may be found in leaf-mine of Secale cereale

Foodplant / parasite
Sphacelia anamorph of Claviceps purpurea parasitises inflorescence of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 7

Foodplant / pathogen
long stalked apothecium of Gloeotinia granigena infects and damages fallen seed of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 5-7

Foodplant / feeds on
adult of Oulema melanopus/rufocyanea agg. feeds on leaf of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, initially immersed pseudothecium of Phaeosphaeria graminis is saprobic on dead stem of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: spring, summer
Other: minor host/prey

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Prionychus ater feeds on Secale cereale
Remarks: Other: uncertain

Foodplant / pathogen
Pseudocercosporella herpotrichoides var. acuformis infects and damages Secale cereale

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Pseudonapomyza atra feeds within leaf of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / spot causer
immersed, crowded or in rows pycnidium of Pseudoseptoria coelomycetous anamorph of Pseudoseptoria donacis causes spots on sheath of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 5-7

Foodplant / parasite
uredium of Puccinia graminis f.sp. secalis parasitises live sheath of Secale cereale

Foodplant / parasite
hypophyllous, subepidermal telium of Puccinia recondita parasitises live leaf of Secale cereale

Foodplant / spot causer
linear, long covered by epidermis telium of Puccinia striiformis var. striiformis causes spots on live inflorescence of Secale cereale

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered or in small groups, immersed pseudothecium of Pyrenophora tritici-repentis is saprobic on dead sheath of Secale cereale

Foodplant / spot causer
immersed, thin, subcuticular stromatic plates of Rhynchosporium coelomycetous anamorph of Rhynchosporium secalis causes spots on live sheath of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 4-9

Foodplant / pathogen
immersed stroma of Pseudocercosporella dematiaceous anamorph of Tapesia yallundae infects and damages live stem of Secale cereale

Foodplant / pathogen
embedded sorus of Tilletia caries infects and damages ovary of Secale cereale

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Trachelus tabidus feeds within stem of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / internal feeder
larva of Trachelus troglodyta feeds within stem of Secale cereale
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
sorus of Urocystis occulta parasitises live inflorescence of Secale cereale
Remarks: season: 6

Foodplant / feeds on
larva of Zabrus tenebrioides feeds on Secale cereale

The following is a representative barcode sequence, the centroid of all available sequences for this species.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 8
Specimens with Barcodes: 9
Species With Barcodes: 1

Rounded Global Status Rank: GNR - Not Yet Ranked

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNA - Not Applicable

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status (e.g. threatened or endangered species, state noxious status, and wetland indicator values).

This section is under development.

These species are introduced in Switzerland.

Please contact your local agricultural extension specialist or county weed specialist to learn what works best in your area and how to use it safely. Always read label and safety instructions for each control method. Trade names and control measures appear in this document only to provide specific information. USDA, NRCS does not guarantee or warranty the products and control methods named, and other products may be equally effective.

Late fall and early spring growth, and prostrate fall leaf growth make ‘Aroostook’ (New York) rye a valuable cover crop. ‘Aroostook’ rye can be seeded in northern Maine as late as September 30th. The leaf area index, (when the plants are growing at 200 growing degree days with a base of 32 degrees F) is significantly greater than ‘Balbo.’ The foundation seed for ‘Aroostook’ rye is produced by the Big Flats, NY Plant Materials Center, and is available to commercial seed producers. Commercially produced certified seed is available from some dealers. Currently, most seed production occurs in the Midwest.

There is usually adequate residual fertilizer following a row crop to produce the cover crop. Due to ‘Aroostook’s abundant spring growth, it is important to plow, spray, graze, or cut its stands in a timely manner when managed for green manure, cover crop, or forage. Strong growth can be anticipated in March in the southern part of the Northeast. Northern locations typically begin growth in April. For pasture, extremely rapid rotation or stocking with large numbers of animals is required to capture the spring growth. In areas with high nitrogen availability, take preventative measures for grass tetany or other related reactions; an acclimation period for livestock is highly recommended.

This plant may become weedy or invasive in some regions or habitats and may displace desirable vegetation if not properly managed. Please consult with your local NRCS Field Office, Cooperative Extension Service office, or state natural resource or agriculture department regarding its status and use. Weed information is also available from the PLANTS Web site at plants.usda.gov.

Cereal rye is a commonly used winter cover crop in the northeastern U.S. Due to the late harvest of many crops, fall-planted cover crops often do not make adequate growth to provide winter soil protection, but cereal rye can germinate and grow under cooler conditions than other covers. Cereal rye can also be used for spring forage production, and fed as pasture, green chop, or put up as haylage. It is reported that rye forage may impart an off-flavor to milk. Cereal rye does have an allelopathic affect on some weed species.