Arctostaphylos patula

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Distribution

States or Provinces

(key to state/province abbreviations)
United States AZ CA CO MT NV NM OR UT WA
Mexico B.C.N.

Source:

License:

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [21]:

1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

7 Lower Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont

References:

21. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Distribution

Greenleaf manzanita is the most common manzanita in the Great Basin and much of the Sierra Nevada [157,205]. It occurs from Washington south to California and Baja California, east to New Mexico, and north to Montana [55,89,90,91,94,105,106,113,226,227]. Plants Database provides a distributional map of greenleaf manzanita.

References:

113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
55. Dorn, Robert D. 1984. Vascular plants of Montana. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 276 p. [819]
89. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
90. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
91. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
157. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
205. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]
226. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
227. Wiggins, Ira L. 1980. Flora of Baja California. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1025 p. [21993]
105. Kartesz, John T. 1999. A synonymized checklist and atlas with biological attributes for the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 1st ed. In: Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Botanical Garden (Producer). In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. [36715]
106. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

Source:

License:

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Arctostaphylos patula var. coalescens W. Knight:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Hartman, R. L. & B. E. Nelson. 1998. Novelties from North America north of Mexico: A 20-Year Vascular plant Diversity Baseline. 1–51 (mss.).
Knight, W. 1984. A new variety of Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae) from the North Coast Ranges California. Four Seasons 7(1): 20–1.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Arctostaphylos parryana var. pinetorum (Rollins) Wiesl. & B. Schreib.:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Munz, P. A. & D. D. Keck. 1959. Cal. Fl. 1–1681. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Arctostaphylos acutifolia Eastw.:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Munz, P. A. & D. D. Keck. 1959. Cal. Fl. 1–1681. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Arctostaphylos patula subsp. platyphylla (A. Gray) P.V. Wells:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Anonymous. 1986. List-Based Rec., Soil Conserv. Serv., U.S.D.A. Database of the U.S.D.A., Beltsville.
Munz, P. A. 1974. Fl. S. Calif. 1–1086. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Arctostaphylos patula Greene:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Anonymous. 1986. List-Based Rec., Soil Conserv. Serv., U.S.D.A. Database of the U.S.D.A., Beltsville.
Munz, P. A. & D. D. Keck. 1959. Cal. Fl. 1–1681. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

National Distribution

United States

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Global Range: South-central WA to CA, east to AZ, NV and nw. MT. Disjunct.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Distribution

Arctostaphylos patula is one of the most widespread manzanitas, ranging throughout the mountains of western North America as far east as Colorado. For current distribution, please consult the Plant Profile page for this species on the PLANTS Web site.

Source:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Morphology

Description

More info for the terms: lignotuber, shrub

This description provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g., [90,91,92,94,105,106,113,160,226,227]).

Greenleaf manzanita is an erect shrub with stout branches [94,106] that grows from 3 to 7 feet (1-2 m) tall [47,70,90,92,94,106,160]. Individual plants may have an ultimate spread of 10 feet (3 m) [197]. Spreading or drooping leaves (never vertical) [89,92,160] are 0.8 to 2 inches (2-6 cm) long, 0.6 to 2 inches (1.5-4 cm) broad [90,92,94,160,226], and produced on twisted, crooked, or gnarled stems [226]. The flowers, about 6 mm long [92], are borne on condensed, many-flowered panicles at the ends of some of the branches [94,167]. The fruit is a drupe, roughly 7-10 mm broad [90,92,160]. Each drupe contains approximately 5 stony, 1-seeded nutlets [70,120].

Underground parts: Unlike greenleaf manzanita populations elsewhere, greenleaf manzanita in the Sierra Nevada and southwestern Oregon has a lignotuber [1,89,94]. The lignotuber is described as a heavy, turnip- or globular-shaped organ that may form tabular platforms [92,99,102]. Greenleaf manzanita roots grow deep into the ground [119,197]. In the southern Sierra Nevada, greenleaf manzanita roots extend to a depth of no greater than 7 feet (2 m). Roots in the latter 5.74 feet (1.74 m) grew down through weathered, porous granitic bedrock [96]. The roots of greenleaf manzanita are commonly infected by ectomycorrhizae or arbutoid mycorrhizae in the Sierra Nevada [131].

Physiological characteristics: Greenleaf manzanita is a drought-tolerant shrub [83]. DeLucia and Schlesinger [54], based on data collected from Alpine County near Reno, Nevada, describe greenleaf manzanita as having high drought tolerance and nitrogen-use efficiency, but low water-use efficiency. Greenleaf manzanita is adapted to high levels of water stress. Greenleaf manzanita plants in the Sierra Nevada maintained a xylem potential of >-0.7 MPa throughout the growing season even during periods of drought [130].

References:

113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
160. Munz, Philip A.; Keck, David D. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
1. Adams, J. E. 1940. A systematic study of the genus Arctostaphylos Adans. Journal of the Elisha Mitchell Scientific Society. 56(1): 1-61. [20515]
47. Cooke, Wm. Bridge. 1940. Flora of Mount Shasta. The American Midland Naturalist. 23(3): 497-572. [64906]
54. DeLucia, Evan H.; Schlesinger, William H. 1991. Resource-use efficiency and drought tolerance in adjacent Great Basin and Sierran plants. Ecology. 72(1): 51-58. [15486]
70. Goodrich, Sherel; Neese, Elizabeth. 1986. Uinta Basin flora. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region, Ashley National Forest; Vernal, UT: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management, Vernal District. 320 p. [23307]
83. Gutknecht, Kurt W. 1989. Xeriscaping: an alternative to thirsty landscapes. Utah Science. 50(4): 142-146. [10166]
89. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
90. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
91. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
92. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur; Ownbey, Marion. 1959. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 4: Ericaceae through Campanulaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 510 p. [1170]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
96. Hubbert, K. R.; Beyers, J. L.; Graham, R. C. 2001. Roles of weathered bedrock and soil in seasonal water relations of Pinus jeffreyi and Arctostaphylos patula. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 31: 1947-1957. [43216]
99. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and burls--their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botanical Review. 50(3): 225-266. [5590]
102. Jepson, Willis L. 1916. Regeneration in Manzanita. Madrono. 1: 3-11. [12206]
119. Kelly, George W. 1970. A guide to the woody plants of Colorado. Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co. 180 p. [6379]
120. Kelly, Victoria R.; Parker, V. Thomas. 1991. Percentage seed set, sprouting habit and ploidy level in Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae). Madrono. 38(4): 227-232. [16884]
130. Lanini, W. Thomas; Radosevich, Steven R. 1982. Herbicide effectiveness in response to season of application and shrub physiology. Weed Science. 30: 467-475. [3389]
131. Largent, David L.; Sugihara, Neil; Wishner, Carl. 1980. Occurrence of mycorrhizae on ericaceous and pyrolaceous plants in northern California. Canadian Journal of Botany. 58: 2274-2279. [35868]
167. Parker, Karl G. 1975. Some important Utah range plants. Extension Service Bulletin EC-383. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 174 p. [9878]
197. Sutton, Richard F.; Johnson, Craig W. 1974. Landscape plants from Utah's mountains. EC-368. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 135 p. [49]
226. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
227. Wiggins, Ira L. 1980. Flora of Baja California. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1025 p. [21993]
105. Kartesz, John T. 1999. A synonymized checklist and atlas with biological attributes for the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. 1st ed. In: Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Chapel Hill, NC: North Carolina Botanical Garden (Producer). In cooperation with: The Nature Conservancy; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Natural Resources Conservation Service; U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. [36715]
106. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

Source:

License:

Diagnostic Description

This distinctive shrub hybridizes with A. UVA-URSI, but the latter has trailing stems that rarely are over 2 dm tall.

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Habitat

Key Plant Community Associations

More info for the terms: hardwood, phase

Greenleaf manzanita is described as a dominant species in the following
vegetation classifications and locations.

California:

Black oak (Quercus velutina)/greenleaf manzanita in the hardwood rangelands [3]

Whitethorn ceanothus (Ceanothus cordulatus)-greenleaf manzanita-bush chinquapin
(Chrysolepis sempervirens) in the San Bernardino Mountains [154]

Jeffrey pine (Pinus jeffreyi)/greenleaf manzanita-snowbrush ceanothus (Ceanothus velutinus),
found throughout the Sierra Nevada at mid- to upper elevations (5,920-9,520 feet (1,800-2,900 m)) [170]

Canyon live oak (Q. chrysolepis)/whiteleaf manzanita-greenleaf manzanita in Castle Crags State Park, Shasta County

Wedgeleaf ceanothus-California coffeeberry (C. cuneatus-Rhamnus californica)-greenleaf manzanita
in Castle Crags State Park [196]

Pacific ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa)/greenleaf
manzanita in Lava Beds National Monument

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush (Purshia tridentata)-greenleaf
manzanita near the extreme southern border of Lava Beds National Monument

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita/western needlegrass (Achnatherum
occidentale ssp. occidentale) at the highest elevations of Lava Beds
National Monument [58]

Nevada:

Quaking aspen-white fir (Populus tremuloides-Abies concolor)/greenleaf
manzanita community type in the Snake Range of the Humboldt National Forest from 8,300 to 9,500 feet (2,500-2,900 m)
[2,158,163]
Singleleaf pinyon/pale serviceberry (Pinus monophylla-Amelanchier pallida)/
greenleaf manzanita in the eastern part of Mathews Canyon Watershed [25]
Greenleaf manzanita/snowbrush ceanothus-prostrate ceanothus (C. prostratus)
shrublands [163]
Singleleaf pinyon/Saskatoon serviceberry (A. alnifolia)/greenleaf manzanita woodlands [163]

Oregon:

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita community in the Cascade
Range of south-central Oregon [56]

Tanoak (Lithocarpus densiflorus)/manzanita (greenleaf, whiteleaf, and hairy
manzanita (Arctostaphylos columbiana)/beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) east of the Coast Ranges crest
in the southwestern portion of the state from approximately 3,000 to 3,700 feet (900-1,100 m) [9]

Pacific ponderosa pine/greenleaf manzanita/Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis)
on the Silver Lake mule deer range from 4,900 to 6,500 feet (1,500-2,000 m) [53] and in other south-central portions
of the state [65]

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita
on pumice soils in the south-central portion of the state [65]

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita/yellow sedge (Carex
pensylvanica) on pumice soils on the east slopes of the Cascade Range [65,214]

Greenleaf manzanita/snowbrush ceanothus in the eastern Siskiyou Mountains [65]

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita/Idaho fescue in the Fremont
and Deschutes National Forests from 3,100 to 6,000 feet (940-2,000 m) [95,214]

White fir-Pacific ponderosa pine/greenleaf manzanita-pinemat manzanita-Oregon-grape
(A. nevadensis-Berberis repens) in the Fremont-Winema National Forest from 5,000 to 6,500 feet
(1,500-2,000 m) [95]

Sierra lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta var. murrayana)/snowbrush
ceanothus-greenleaf manzanita-pinemat manzanita in the Deschutes and Fremont-Winema
National Forests from 4,800 to 6,000 feet (1,500-2,000 m)

Sierra lodgepole pine/pinemat manzanita-greenleaf
manzanita in the Deschutes and Fremont-Winema National Forests from 5,800 to
7,000 feet (1,800-2,000 m)

Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf
manzanita/Columbia needlegrass (Achnatherum nelsonii) in the Deschutes and
Fremont-Winema National Forests from 3,000 to 5,900 feet (900-1,800 m)

Pacific ponderosa pine-white fir-sugar pine (Pinus lambertiana)/snowbrush
ceanothus-greenleaf manzanita in the Deschutes and Fremont-Winema National
Forests from 4,100 to 5,900 feet (1,200-1,800 m)

Pacific ponderosa pine-Sierra lodgepole pine-white fir/greenleaf
manzanita-snowbrush ceanothus/yellow sedge-glaucous beardtongue (Penstemon euglaucus) in the
Deschutes National Forest from 4,300 to 5,600 feet (1,300-1,700 m)

California red fir (Abies magnifica)-white fir-western white pine (Pinus
monticola)/pinemat manzanita-greenleaf manzanita in the Deschutes and
Fremont-Winema National Forests from 5,450 to 7,000 feet (1,660-2,000 m) [214]

Utah:

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca)/greenleaf
manzanita in the central and southern mountains from 7,200 to 8,700 feet (2,200-2,700 m) [2,230]

White fir/greenleaf manzanita in the southern mountains from 8,100 to 8,500 feet (2,500-2,600 m) [2,230]

Interior ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum)/Idaho
fescue (greenleaf manzanita phase) in the south-central Uinta Mountains; this
habitat type is associated with warm, dry sites [138]

Interior ponderosa pine/greenleaf manzanita in Garfield County and east to the LaSal and
Abajo mountains [230]

Regions:

Interior ponderosa pine/greenleaf manzanita in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain West
regions of southern Utah and western Colorado [2]

Interior ponderosa pine/Idaho fescue greenleaf manzanita phase in the Rocky Mountain
and Intermountain West regions of eastern Washington, Idaho, northern Utah, central and
southeastern Montana, and north-central Wyoming from 2,500 to 6,000 feet
(760-2,000 m), and south-central Colorado from 8,800 to 9,300 feet (2,700-2,800 m) [2]

References:

2. Alexander, Robert R. 1988. Forest vegetation on National Forests in the Rocky Mountain and Intermountain Regions: habitat and community types. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-162. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 47 p. [5903]
3. Allen, Barbara H.; Holzman, Barbara A.; Evett, Rand R. 1991. A classification system for California's hardwood rangelands. Hilgardia. 59(2): 1-45. [17371]
25. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Tueller, Paul T.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr. 1969. Vegetation and soils of the Pine and Mathews Canyon watersheds. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 109 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [7437]
53. Dealy, J. Edward. 1971. Habitat characteristics of the Silver Lake mule deer range. Res. Pap. PNW-125. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 99 p. [782]
56. Dyrness, C. T.; Youngberg, C. T. 1966. Soil-vegetation relationships within the ponderosa pine type in the central Oregon pumice region. Ecology. 47(1): 122-138. [63276]
58. Erhard, Dean H. 1979. Plant communities and habitat types in the Lava Beds National Monument, California. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 173 p. Thesis. [869]
65. Franklin, Jerry F.; Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Natural vegetation of Oregon and Washington. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-8. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 417 p. [961]
95. Hopkins, William E. 1979. Plant associations of the Fremont National Forest. R6-ECOL-79-004. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 106 p. [7340]
138. Mauk, Ronald L.; Henderson, Jan A. 1984. Coniferous forest habitat types of northern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-170. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 89 p. [1553]
154. Minnich, Richard A. 1976. Vegetation of the San Bernardino Mountains. In: Latting, June, ed. Symposium proceedings: plant communities of southern California; 1974 May 4; Fullerton, CA. Special Publication No. 2. Berkeley, CA: California Native Plant Society: 99-124. [4232]
158. Mueggler, Walter F. 1988. Aspen community types of the Intermountain Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-250. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 135 p. [5902]
170. Potter, Donald A. 1998. Forested communities of the upper montane in the central and southern Sierra Nevada. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-169. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 319 p. [44951]
196. Stuart, John D.; Worley, Tom; Buell, Ann C. 1996. Plant associations of Castle Crags State Park, Shasta County, California. Madrono. 43(2): 273-291. [64661]
214. Volland, Leonard A. 1985. Plant associations of the central Oregon pumice zone. R6-ECOL-104-1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 138 p. [7341]
230. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Mauk, Ronald L. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types of central and southern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-187. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 89 p. [2684]
9. Atzet, Thomas; White, Diane E.; McCrimmon, Lisa A.; Martinez, Patricia A.; Fong, Paula Reid; Randall, Vince D., tech. coords. 1996. Field guide to the forested plant associations of southwestern Oregon. Technical Paper R6-NR-ECOL-TP-17-96. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. Available online: http://www.fs.fed.us/r6/siskiyou/guide.htm [2004, October 7]. [49881]
163. Nevada Natural Heritage Program. 2003. National vegetation classification for Nevada [NVC], [Online]. Carson City, NV: Nevada Department of Conservation and Natural Resources (Producer). Available: http://heritage.nv.gov/ecology/nv_nvc.htm [2005, November 3]. [55021]

Source:

License:

Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: cover, forb, shrub

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [187]:

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

202 Coast live oak woodland

204 North coastal shrub

206 Chamise chaparral

207 Scrub oak mixed chaparral

208 Ceanothus mixed chaparral

209 Montane shrubland

210 Bitterbrush

409 Tall forb

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

420 Snowbrush

503 Arizona chaparral

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

509 Transition between oak-juniper woodland and mahogany-oak association

References:

187. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

Source:

License:

Habitat: Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [60]:

207 Red fir

210 Interior Douglas-fir

211 White fir

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

229 Pacific Douglas-fir

232 Redwood

233 Oregon white oak

234 Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

241 Western live oak

243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

244 Pacific ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir

245 Pacific ponderosa pine

246 California black oak

247 Jeffrey pine

248 Knobcone pine

249 Canyon live oak

255 California coast live oak

References:

60. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

Source:

License:

Habitat: Plant Associations

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

KUCHLER [127] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K005 Mixed conifer forest

K006 Redwood forest

K007 Red fir forest

K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest

K010 Ponderosa shrub forest

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K015 Western spruce-fir forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest

K022 Great Basin pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K026 Oregon oakwoods

K029 California mixed evergreen forest

K030 California oakwoods

K031 Oak-juniper woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K033 Chaparral

K034 Montane chaparral

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

References:

127. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. Manual to accompany the map of potential vegetation of the conterminous United States. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 77 p. [1384]

Source:

License:

Habitat: Ecosystem

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [68]:

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES27 Redwood

FRES28 Western hardwoods

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

References:

68. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Habitat characteristics

Greenleaf manzanita is most commonly associated with dry sites in arid chaparral belts [117,161,181,189], on old and new burn sites [123,125,229], in open coniferous forests (particularly ponderosa pine), and in woodlands [90,94,106].

Climate: Greenleaf manzanita is well adapted to hot, dry climates and can withstand wide temperature extremes [149]. In the Sierra Nevada, where greenleaf manzanita is prevalent, the climate is characterized by hot, dry summers and mild, moist winters. Most of the precipitation occurs as snow from November to May [165,181,188].

Elevation: Greenleaf manzanita elevational range State/Region Elevation Arizona 7,000 to 8,500 feet [113] California 2,000 to 11,000 feet [90,160,183] Colorado 7,000 to 9,000 feet [88,119] Nevada 2,000 to 9,000 feet [106,192] Utah 4,500 to 9,300 feet [167,226] Sierra Nevada montane chaparral 5,000 to 7,000 feet [188]

Environmental conditions: Greenleaf manzanita is well adapted to high foliar temperatures and low soil moisture availability [42].

Slope and aspect: Greenleaf manzanita is most common on south and southwestern aspects where full sunlight is available [59,95].

Soil: Greenleaf manzanita typically occurs on soils that are well drained [96,119,149], shallow to moderately deep, and sandy loam to silty loam in texture [59,95,192]. Parent materials may include sandstone, limestone, pumice, and granite [25,53,95,138,214,230].

Detailed soil data for the Teakettle Experimental Forest in the Sierra Nevada [165] and a Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita community located in the Cascade Range of south-central Oregon [56] are available. Detailed descriptions of soil chemical and mineral composition in a midseral Jeffrey pine/greenleaf manzanita forest are also available [177].

References:

113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
117. Keeley, Jon E. 1991. Seed germination and life history syndromes in the California chaparral. The Botanical Review. 57(2): 81-116. [36973]
160. Munz, Philip A.; Keck, David D. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
25. Blackburn, Wilbert H.; Tueller, Paul T.; Eckert, Richard E., Jr. 1969. Vegetation and soils of the Pine and Mathews Canyon watersheds. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Agricultural Experiment Station. 109 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. [7437]
42. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1981. Photosynthesis, xylem pressure potential, and leaf conductance of three montane chaparral species in California. Forest Science. 27(4): 627-639. [8761]
53. Dealy, J. Edward. 1971. Habitat characteristics of the Silver Lake mule deer range. Res. Pap. PNW-125. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 99 p. [782]
56. Dyrness, C. T.; Youngberg, C. T. 1966. Soil-vegetation relationships within the ponderosa pine type in the central Oregon pumice region. Ecology. 47(1): 122-138. [63276]
59. Everett, Yvonne. 1997. A guide to selected non-timber forest products of the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area, Shasta-Trinity and Six Rivers National Forests, California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-162. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 64 p. [28986]
88. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2nd ed. Chicago, IL: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]
90. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
95. Hopkins, William E. 1979. Plant associations of the Fremont National Forest. R6-ECOL-79-004. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 106 p. [7340]
96. Hubbert, K. R.; Beyers, J. L.; Graham, R. C. 2001. Roles of weathered bedrock and soil in seasonal water relations of Pinus jeffreyi and Arctostaphylos patula. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 31: 1947-1957. [43216]
119. Kelly, George W. 1970. A guide to the woody plants of Colorado. Boulder, CO: Pruett Publishing Co. 180 p. [6379]
123. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1971. The role of fire in managing red fir forests. In: Transactions, 36th North American wildlife and natural resources conference; 1971 March 7-10; Portland, OR. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute: 405-416. [6474]
125. Kilgore, Bruce M.; Biswell, H. H. 1971. Seedling germination following fire in a giant Sequoia forest. California Agriculture. 25(2): 8-10. [6355]
138. Mauk, Ronald L.; Henderson, Jan A. 1984. Coniferous forest habitat types of northern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-170. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 89 p. [1553]
149. McDonald, Philip M.; Laurie, William D.; Hill, Richard. 1998. Early growth characteristics of planted deerbrush and greenleaf manzanita seedlings in California. Res. Note PSW-RN-442. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 6 p. [31114]
161. Nagel, Thomas A.; Taylor, Alan H. 2005. Fire and persistence of montane chaparral in mixed conifer forest landscapes in the northern Sierra Nevada, Lake Tahoe Basin, California, USA. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 132(3): 442-457. [61027]
165. North, Malcolm; Oakley, Brian; Chen, Jiquan; Erickson, Heather; Gray, Andrew; Izzo, Antonio; Johnson, Dale; Ma, Siyan; Marra, Jim; Meyer, Marc; Purcell, Kathryn; Rambo, Tom; Rizzo, Dave; Roath, Brent; Schowalter, Tim. 2002. Vegetation and ecological characteristics of mixed-conifer and red fir forests at the Teakettle Experimental Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-186. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 52 p. [47226]
167. Parker, Karl G. 1975. Some important Utah range plants. Extension Service Bulletin EC-383. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 174 p. [9878]
177. Riegel, G. M.; Svejcar, T. J.; Busse, M. D. 2002. Does the presence of Wyethia mollis affect growth of Pinus jeffreyi seedlings. Western North American Naturalist. 62(2): 141-150. [47183]
181. Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Bull. 65. Berkeley, CA: University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 144 p. [2050]
183. Sampson, Arthur W.; Jespersen, Beryl S. 1963. California range brushlands and browse plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences; California Agricultural Experiment Station, Extension Service. 162 p. [3240]
188. Skau, C. M.; Meeuwig, R. O.; Townsend, T. W. 1970. Ecology of eastside Sierra chaparral: A literature review. R71. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Max C. Fleischmann College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 14 p. [3798]
192. Stark, N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to Nevada. Bull. No. B-7. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture, Desert Research Institute. 209 p. In cooperation with: Nevada State Highway Department. [47]
214. Volland, Leonard A. 1985. Plant associations of the central Oregon pumice zone. R6-ECOL-104-1985. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 138 p. [7341]
226. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
229. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A.; Kay, Burgess L.; Budy, Jerry D. 1986. California black oak woodlands in the Great Basin. Transactions of the Western Section of the Wildlife Society. 22: 117-120. [65869]
230. Youngblood, Andrew P.; Mauk, Ronald L. 1985. Coniferous forest habitat types of central and southern Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-187. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 89 p. [2684]
189. Skinner, Carl N.; Chang, Chi-ru. 1996. FIRE REGIMES, past and present. In: Status of the Sierra Nevada. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress. Volume II: Assessments and scientific basis for management options. Wildland Resources Center Report No. 37. Davis, CA: University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources: 1041-1069. [28975]
106. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

Source:

License:

Dispersal

Establishment

Adaptation: It inhabits well-drained, rocky slopes in association with coniferous forests and high elevation chaparral. Its general geographic range is characterized by cool, relatively dry summers and wet winters with precipitation ranging from 50 to 80 inches per year, partly as snow. It prefers well-drained, acidic soils in open sunny sites. Greenleaf manzanita has a high tolerance for cold, below-freezing winters, but depends partly on snow cover to protect dormant buds. Occasional fires may be important to successful seed germination and establishment and to crown sprouting in senescent plants.

Natural Establishment: Arctostaphylos patula, like most manzanita species, requires insect visitation to ensure seed-set. The flowers are pollinated most effectively by bees that grasp the flower and shake it by actively beating their wings. This process, like shaking a salt and pepper container, permits efficient collection of the pollen, which is used for food. Fruits are dispersed primarily by animals, which presumably aid later germination by ingesting and digesting the fruit and softening the outer seed coat. However, natural germination is sporadic except after fire, which cracks the hard coat of seeds that have accumulated in the litter layer. Greenleaf manzanita prefers loose, well-drained soils and, like other members of the heath family (Ericaceae), has an obligate relationship with mycorrhizal fungi.

Seed Propagation: Propagation from seed is difficult, because of the thick, bony seed walls and low rates of germination (less than 10%) without treatment. However, if propagation from seed is desired, treatment must ensure that the seed coat is broken without damaging the embryo. Individual seeds may be filed with a steel file, but larger quantities can be treated by placing them into a container of boiling water that is removed from the source of heat after 1-2 minutes. Seeds also respond well to burning, which is accomplished by firing a 4-inch deep layer of combustible leaves and twigs over a flat planted with seeds. These treatments crack the seed coats but may reduce viability. Treated seeds should be stratified in a moist mix of milled spaghnum and beach sand for 2-8 months until they germinate. Other techniques, including use of sulfuric acid to soften the seed coat, may enhance germination, but also requires special precautions against spillage and contamination.

Vegetative Propagation: Vegetative propagation is preferred over seeds. Greenleaf manzanita is most easily propagated by cutting terminal shoots that include 1-2 inches of the woody stem from the previous year. Cuttings work best if taken between March and May and should be dipped in a rooting hormone before being placed in a moist sand-peat mixture. Cuttings need to be kept moist by regular watering or misting until roots appear. Once rooted, they should be transplanted into small containers using potting soil, to allow for proper root development. Manzanitas generally do not transplant well, so they should be grown to vigorous conditions in one-gallon containers and then moved to a permanent position in the late fall or early winter. Relatively slow growth rates during the first few years can be expected. If plants are used in an urban landscape, the use of organic-rich soils and acidified fertilizers is recommended.

Source:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

General Ecology

Fire Management Considerations

More info for the terms: cover, density, flame length, fuel, fuel moisture, severity, shrub, shrubs

Avian community changes: In the 15-year period following a 39,000-acre (15,800 ha) August fire in a pine-fir (Pinus-Abies spp.) forest in the northern Sierra Nevada, the population of greenleaf manzanita increased, and with it, bird species characteristic of shrub stands. At postfire year 15, yellow warbler, green-tailed towhee, and fox sparrow populations "increased dramatically" from postfire year 8 [27].

Fire behavior: The fire behavior of 16 prescribed burned plots in montane chaparral communities codominated by greenleaf manzanita, huckleberry oak, and whitethorn ceanothus was measured in Yosemite National Park. These fires were separated in space and time. At the time of burning few shrubs exceeded 6 feet (2 m) in height [210].

Fire behavior in a montane chaparral site in Yosemite National Park Spread/minute (feet) Flame length (feet) Mean Range Mean Range 11.7 0.0-35.3 12.5 1.0-25.0

Fire economics: Literature is available on the costs associated with and the economic feasibility of burning greenleaf manzanita and other northern California chaparral species [182].

Live fuel moisture: In the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range of California, greenleaf manzanita live fuel moisture during the 1984 fire season ranged from a high of approximately 150% on 29 May to a low of approximately 100% on 15 October [176]. On the Shasta-Trinity National Forest, greenleaf manzanita mature leaf moisture content varied widely throughout the year. Samples taken in November 1966 showed an average moisture content of 120%, which dropped to 86% by 25 June 1967. From the end of June to 10 July 1967, average moisture content increased rapidly to 125% and remained at or above 100% until April 1968. The moisture content of new leaves was substantially higher than mature leaves. On 13 July, when the moisture content of mature leaves was 123%, new greenleaf manzanita leaves had a moisture content of 259% [35].

Physical burning characteristics: On the eastern slopes of Mt Shasta at elevations ranging from 4,000 to 6,000 feet (1,200-1,800 m), greenleaf manzanita physical characteristics relevant to fire were studied over a 4-year period [49].

Average greenleaf manzanita physical characteristics Characteristics Foliage Woody fuel (inches diameter) < 0.25 0.26-0.50 0.51-1.0 > 1.0 Living fuel density (lb/ftÂ³) 54.7 38.9 41.3 44.5 46.4 Solvent extractives in living fuel (%) 16.9 6.2 4.2 3.6 3.4 Solvent extractives in dead fuel (%) 0 2.6 1.2 1.4 1.9 Surface-to-volume ratio (ftÂ²/ftÂ³) 1,623 343 137 66 32 Heating value of living fuel (Btu/lb) 9,076 8,246 8,212 8,306 8,320 Heating value of dead fuel (Btu/lb) no data 8,280 8,367 8,201 8,429

Data on the average greenleaf manzanita biomass by fuel size class and crown cover across many areas of Oregon, Washington, and northern California east of the Cascade Range are available [136].

Soil: Data on the average bulk density and nutrient concentrations of soil on burned shrub sites dominated by snowbrush ceanothus and containing greenleaf manzanita are available in Johnson and others [103].

Surface and subsurface (3 to 4.3 inches (7-11 cm)) soil temperatures were measured during prescribed fires of high and low severity in greenleaf manzanita stands in the Sierra National Forest, California, at an elevation of 7,000 feet (2,000 m). High-severity fires were created by adding fine and woody fuels to the burn sites. Low-severity sites were burned with existing fuel loads. On the high-severity sites, temperatures reached over 600 Â°F (300 Â°C) at the soil surface and 400 Â°F (200 Â°C) in the subsurface zone. On the low-severity sites, temperatures reached 300 Â°F (150 Â°C) at the surface and 200 Â°F (100 Â°C) in the subsurface zone [166].

References:

27. Bock, Carl E.; Raphael, Martin; Bock, Jane H. 1978. Changing avian community structure during early post-fire succession in the Sierra Nevada. Wilson Bulletin. 90(1): 119-123. [16029]
35. Carpenter, Stanley B.; Bentley, Jay R.; Graham, Charles A. 1970. Moisture contents of brushland fuels desiccated for burning. Res. Note PSW-202. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 7 p. [13588]
49. Countryman, Clive M. 1982. Physical characteristics of some northern California brush fuels. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-61. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 8 p. [4177]
103. Johnson, D. W.; Murphy, J. F.; Susfalk, R. B.; Caldwell, T. G.; Miller, W. W.; Walker, R. F.; Powers, R. F. 2005. The effects of wildfire, salvage logging, and post-fire N-fixation on the nutrient budgets of a Sierran forest. Forest Ecology and Management. 220(1-3): 155-165. [56109]
136. Martin, Robert E.; Frewing, David W.; McClanahan, James L. 1981. Average biomass of four northwest shrubs by fuel size class and crown cover. Research Note PNW-374. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 6 p. [1536]
166. Oakley, Brian B.; North, Malcolm P.; Franklin, Jerry F. 2003. The effects of fire on soil nitrogen associated with patches of the actinorhizal shrub Ceanothus cordulatus. Plant and Soil. 254: 35-46. [60513]
176. Rice, C. L.; Martin, R. E. 1985. Live fuel moistures of California north coast scrub species. In: Donoghue, Linda R.; Martin, Robert E., eds. Weather--the drive train connecting the solar engine to forest ecosystems. Proceedings of the 8th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 263-269. [66098]
182. Sampson, Arthur W.; Burcham, L. T. 1954. Costs and returns of controlled brush burning for range improvement in northern California. Range Improvement Studies No. 1. Sacramento, CA: California Department of Natural Resources, Division of Forestry. 41 p. [41820]
210. van Wagtendonk, Jan W.; Botti, Stephen J. 1984. Modeling behavior of prescribed fires in Yosemite National Park. Journal of Forestry. 82(8): 479-484. [50511]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: cover, density, fire suppression, fire use, fuel, litter, prescribed fire, shrub, shrubs, tree, wildfire

General fire studies:
The following 2 studies do not discuss whether postfire growth is from seedlings or sprouting. In both
studies, burning increased greenleaf manzanita.

Prescribed burning increased greenleaf manzanita density on the Deschutes
National Forest. During the spring of 1979, moderate- and
high-severity prescription burns were
conducted in a Pacific ponderosa pine/antelope bitterbrush-greenleaf manzanita/western needlegrass
community. Prior to burning, 300 to 400 greenleaf manzanita shrubs/ha occurred on both
treatment sites. In postfire year 15 (1984), greenleaf manzanita averaged 2,590 shrubs/ha on
moderate-severity burns and 3,550 shrubs/ha on high-severity burn sites [180].
On Donner Pass, California, an August 1960 wildfire burned 40,000 acres (16,000 ha) in a
conifer forest consisting primarily of mixed pine and fir species. In 1963 and
1975 line transects were run throughout the burned areas. In 1963 greenleaf
manzanita was 0% on line transects. Greenleaf manzanita cover on transects increased to 3.8% in 1975 [26].
Seedlings:
In the following studies, an increase in greenleaf manzanita seedlings occurred
following fire. Higher-severity fires caused greater seedling establishment than
lower-severity fires [109,111,112,222].
Before and after a September 1927
fire on a chamise-dominated site in Mendocino County, California, greenleaf manzanita seedlings/milacre
were counted. Prior to the fire, there were no
greenleaf manzanita seedlings present. Seedling establishment was greatest during the
first postfire year. A survey of the area during postfire year 7 (1934) found that a
large proportion of greenleaf manzanita seedlings which were present in postfire
year 5 had survived and developed into robust plants [181].
Greenleaf manzanita seedlings/milacre
before and 1 to 5 years after burningPrefire1st postfire year2nd postfire year3rd postfire year4th postfire year5th postfire year07.24.02.62.62.6
Sixty to 70-year-old white fir stands with an understory of snowbrush
ceanothus and greenleaf manzanita and/or pinemat manzanita (species not
differentiated in study) were burned before and after tree harvest in the Lassen
National Forest, California [222]. Prior to spring or fall burning and white fir
harvest in 1983, manzanita seedlings ranged from 0 to 1,700 seedlings/acre.
During the summer of 1984, manzanita seedling density ranged from 11,000 to
16,000/acre on sites burned in spring 1983 before harvest. Manzanita seedling
densities on sites burned after harvest in the spring and fall of 1983 ranged from 13,000
to 16,000/acre and 10,000 to 11,000/acre for spring and fall burns, respectively. The
density of manzanita seedlings after postharvest burning was considerably higher for spring
burns than for fall burns. This seasonal difference was attributed to
consistently higher percent burned area in spring than in fall; fall
fuels were wet due to rains [222].
Fall and spring prescribed burns of varying severities conducted in 1983 at 2
sites on the west slope of the Sierra Nevada and Cascade Range produced
significant greenleaf manzanita seedling increases (P<0.10) during either postfire year 1 or 2 [109,111,112]. The
first site, Blodgett Forest Research Station, sits at an elevation of 4,300 feet (1,300
m) and was dominated by white fir, ponderosa pine, incense-cedar,
and Douglas-fir, with a scattered and diverse shrub understory consisting of
whitethorn ceanothus, greenleaf manzanita, California black oak, deer brush (Ceanothus
integerrimus), giant chinquapin (Chrysolepis chrysophylla), tanoak (Lithocarpus
densiflora), Sierra mountain misery (Chamaebatia foliolosa), and pine
rose (Rosa pinetorium). The second site, Quincy Ranger District, sits at an
elevation of 4,432 feet (1,351 m) and was dominated by Jeffrey pine, coast
Douglas-fir, and incense-cedar. The most common understory shrubs included
California black oak, deer brush, thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus), and
pale serviceberry (Amelanchier pallida). Greenleaf manzanita was a minor species at
Quincy; therefore, greenleaf manzanita seedlings were far fewer after Quincy
fires than fires at Blodgett [109,111,112].
Four burn treatments were conducted at each site. Researchers included an early
spring-moderate consumption burn; a late spring-high consumption burn; an early
fall-high consumption burn; and a late fall-moderate consumption burn. The early
spring-moderate consumption burn was conducted as soon as fuels could
carry fire. The late spring-high consumption burn was conducted as
late in the season as safely possible (prior to the active fire suppression
season). The early fall-high consumption burn was conducted as early in the fall
as possible and before major precipitation. Finally, the
late fall-moderate consumption burn was conducted 1 to 2 days after significant precipitation. Seedling densities of greenleaf
manzanita, particularly at the Blodgett site, were much higher on high-consumption burns
than moderate-consumption burns. Comparing high-consumption
burns, spring burns produced more greenleaf manzanita seedlings than fall burns
at Blodgett, while the opposite was true at Quincy. On spring sites,
excluding the early spring-moderate consumption burn at the Blodgett site, greenleaf
manzanita seedlings were not produced in postfire year 1 because the stratification period was
incomplete until the winter of 1985.
At 1 Blodgett site (late fall-moderate consumption) and 2 Quincy sites (early
fall-high consumption and late fall-moderate consumption),
greenleaf manzanita seedlings increased in postfire year 1 but decreased during
postfire year 2. This was attributed to shading: greenleaf manzanita seedlings occurred
under a dense canopy [109,111,112].
Most greenleaf manzanita seeds present in the seed bank had been cached by
rodents many years prior to the fires, likely before conifer establishment.
After postfire seedling establishment, the rodents dug into these caches in
search of seeds. This caused substantial mortality of fragile greenleaf
manzanita seedlings [112].
The table below describes density of greenleaf manzanita seedlings prior to
the prescription burns (1983), at the end of the 1984 and 1985 growing seasons
(postfire years 1 and 2), and on the unburned control sites [109,111,112].
Mean (SE) density/ha of greenleaf
manzanita seedlings at the Blodgett siteTreatmentDate of fire1983 (prefire)19841985Early fall-high consumption28 Sept. 19840 (0)ND*11,833 (2,625)Late fall-moderate consumption8 Oct. 19832,042 (1,116)4,875 (1,508)958 (305)Late spring-high consumption26 June 1984367 (200)0 (0)25,233 (5,832)Early spring-moderate consumption17 May 1984233 (202)34 (33)4,600 (2,059)Control467 (210)134 (65)134 (65)Mean (SE) density/ha of greenleaf
manzanita seedlings at the Quincy siteTreatmentDate of fire1983 (prefire)19841985Early fall-high consumption15 Sept. 19830 (0)3,567 (769)861.1 (285)Late fall-moderate consumption12 Oct. 19830 (0)1,167 (356)167 (87)Late spring-high consumption24 May 19840 (0)0 (0)833 (540)Early spring-moderate consumption7 May 19840 (0)0 (0)367 (155)Control0 (0)0 (0)0 (0)
*ND=no data
For a complete review of this study, see the Research Project Summary by Kauffman [109,111,112].
Repeated burning:
On Lookout Mountain in central Oregon,
a Pacific ponderosa pine/greenleaf manzanita community was burned twice over a
4-year period, causing nearly complete mortality of mature greenleaf manzanita and
complete mortality of greenleaf manzanita seedlings.
Prescription burning took place at 2 sites, designated as the upper and lower
plots [134].
Date, fuel, and weather
conditions during greenleaf manzanita prescribed burnsDate/conditionsUpper plot, 1st burnLower plot, 1st burnUpper plot, 2nd burnUpper plot, 2nd burnBurn date9/27/7610/1/7610/2/796/9/80Temperature (Â°F)56-7170-7456-6750-52Relative humidity (%)37-6130-3838-5442-43Wind (mph)0-80-50-52-7Fuel moisture content/new litter (%)12-1510-117-205-8Fuel moisture content/old litter (%)10-3611-1511-216-14Fuel moisture content/duff (%)26-6526-7514-2152-54
Following the fires, Martin [134] measured the percent of greenleaf
manzanita that was unburned, burned and sprouting after fire, or killed. Greenleaf manzanita seedling
mortality was measured after second fire. Unfortunately, the researcher did
not provide the date of postfire vegetation measurements. "Poor" postfire sprouting of
greenleaf manzanita occurred on both sites. The researcher expected this, since
greenleaf manzanita is a poor sprouter in the area and the overstory was a
closed Pacific ponderosa pine canopy. Results of the 2 fires are presented below [134]:

Cover (%) of greenleaf manzanita

Fire effectsUpper plotLower plot1st fire Unburned00 Burned/sprouted03.7 Dead10096.32nd fire Unburned10.40 Burned/sprouted2.90 Dead97.10 Shrub seedlings dead100100
For further information on prescribed fire use and postfire responses of multiple plant species in this plant community, see Martin's [134] original Research Paper.

In a montane chaparral site in northern California, a prescribed fire
caused the germination of thousands of greenleaf manzanita seedlings. Three years later the site was reburned,
and only 1 greenleaf manzanita seedling emerged after fire. A third and fourth fire completely eliminated
greenleaf manzanita [24]. Presumably, the initial fire exhausted the
greenleaf manzanita seed bank, leaving few or no seeds to germinate
following subsequent fires. Since it can take 8 to 10 years for greenleaf
manzanita plants to flower and fruit [175], there was no
replenishing of the seed bank between the first and second fires.

References:

24. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
26. Bock, Carl E.; Bock, Jane H. 1977. Patterns of post-fire succession on the Donner Ridge burn, Sierra Nevada. In: Mooney, Harold A.; Conrad, C. Eugene, tech. coords. Proceedings of the symposium of environmental consequences of fire and fuel management in Mediterranean ecosystems; 1977 August 1-5; Palo Alto, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-3. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 464-469. [4896]
109. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, R. E. 1985. A preliminary investigation on the feasibility of preharvest prescribed burning for shrub control. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forestry vegetation management conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 89-114. [7526]
111. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, Robert E. 1985. Shrub and hardwood response to prescribed burning with varying season, weather, and fuel moisture. In: Donoghue, Linda R.; Martin, Robert E., eds. Weather--the drive train connecting the solar engine to forest ecosystems: Proceedings, 8th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 279-286. [9796]
112. Kauffman, John Boone. 1986. The ecological response of the shrub component to prescribed burning in mixed conifer ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. 235 p. Dissertation. [19559]
134. Martin, Robert E. 1982. Shrub control by burning before timber harvest. In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 35-40. [18528]
175. Rejmanek, Marcel; Leps, Jan. 1996. Negative associations can reveal interspecific competition and reversal of competitive hierarchies during succession. Oikos. 76(1): 161-168. [41136]
180. Ruha, T. L. A.; Landsberg, J. D.; Martin, R. E. 1996. Influence of fire on understory shrub vegetation in ponderosa pine stands. In: Barrow, Jerry R.; McArthur, E. Durant; Sosebee, Ronald E.; Tausch, Robin J., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecosystem dynamics in a changing environment; 1995 May 23-25; Las Cruces, NM. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-338. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 108-113. [27036]
181. Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Bull. 65. Berkeley, CA: University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 144 p. [2050]
222. Weatherspoon, C. Phillip. 1985. Preharvest burning for shrub control in a white fir stand: preliminary observations. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forest vegetation management conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 71-88. [11568]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: duff, lignotuber, shrubs

Greenleaf manzanita establishes after fire by seed [11,31,84,112,135,137,161,179,198,199] and sometimes, sprouting from the lignotuber [15,24,31,89,97,137,157,198]. The dormancy of greenleaf manzanita seeds stored in soil and duff is partially broken by fire treatment [11,31,84,135,137,161,179,198,199]. Following scarification, greenleaf manzanita seeds require a period of cold stratification [18,109,112]. Greenleaf manzanita seedlings typically appear in large numbers during the spring of postfire year 1 [74,109,111,112,123,124,125].

Greenleaf manzanita with lignotubers sprout after fire unless the entire periphery of the lignotuber is deeply charred, which rarely happens [15,181]. Shrubs produce new sprouts from dormant buds on the lignotuber in as little as 10 days to 3 weeks [31,93,99,157]. Greenleaf manzanita plants with a lignotuber can withstand repeated burnings [31,52]. However, Martin [134] found that repeated burning of greenleaf manzanita plants with a lignotuber can cause plant mortality.

References:

11. Bacon, Warren R.; Dell, John. 1985. National forest landscape management: Volume 2, Chapter 6--Fire. Agriculture Handbook No 608. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p. [38793]
15. Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. 1980. Fire. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc: 365-583. [45716]
18. Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. 2001. Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 666 p. [60775]
24. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
31. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18211]
52. Dayton, William A. 1931. Important western browse plants. Misc. Publ. 101. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 214 p. [768]
74. Gratkowski, H. 1961. Brush seedlings after controlled burning of brushlands in southwestern Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 59(12): 885-888. [3392]
84. Habeck, James R. 1984. Effects of fire on the flora of the northern Rocky Mountains. Unpublished handout included as part of the 1984 Managing Fire Effects Course, Northern Training Center, Interagency Training Group, Missoula MT. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 21 p. [41835]
89. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
93. Hobbs, Stephen D.; Wearstler, Kenneth A., Jr. 1985. Effects of cutting sclerophyll brush on sprout development and Douglas- fir growth. Forestry Ecology and Management. 13: 69-81. [9690]
97. Husari, Susan. 1980. Fire ecology of the vegetative habitat types in the Lassen Fire Management Planning Area. In: Swanson, John R.; Johnson, Robert C.; Merrifield, Dave; Dennestan, Alan, compilers. Lassen Fire Management Planning Area: Lassen Volcanic National Park-Caribou Wilderness Unit. Mineral, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Lassen Volcanic National Park; Susanville, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Lassen National Forest: Appendix 3: 1-23. [21408]
99. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and burls--their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botanical Review. 50(3): 225-266. [5590]
109. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, R. E. 1985. A preliminary investigation on the feasibility of preharvest prescribed burning for shrub control. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forestry vegetation management conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 89-114. [7526]
111. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, Robert E. 1985. Shrub and hardwood response to prescribed burning with varying season, weather, and fuel moisture. In: Donoghue, Linda R.; Martin, Robert E., eds. Weather--the drive train connecting the solar engine to forest ecosystems: Proceedings, 8th conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1985 April 29-May 2; Detroit, MI. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 279-286. [9796]
112. Kauffman, John Boone. 1986. The ecological response of the shrub component to prescribed burning in mixed conifer ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. 235 p. Dissertation. [19559]
123. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1971. The role of fire in managing red fir forests. In: Transactions, 36th North American wildlife and natural resources conference; 1971 March 7-10; Portland, OR. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute: 405-416. [6474]
124. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1973. Impact of prescribed burning on a Sequoia-mixed conifer forest. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1972 June 8-10; Lubbock, TX. No. 12. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 345-375. [6270]
125. Kilgore, Bruce M.; Biswell, H. H. 1971. Seedling germination following fire in a giant Sequoia forest. California Agriculture. 25(2): 8-10. [6355]
134. Martin, Robert E. 1982. Shrub control by burning before timber harvest. In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 35-40. [18528]
135. Martin, Robert E.; Dell, John D. 1978. Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-76. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 67 p. [18621]
137. Martin, Robert E.; Johnson, Arlen H. 1979. Fire management of Lava Beds National Monument. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st conference on scientific research in the National Parks: Volume II; 1976 November 9-12; New Orleans, LA. NPS Transactions and Proceedings Series No. 5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 1209-1217. [1537]
157. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
161. Nagel, Thomas A.; Taylor, Alan H. 2005. Fire and persistence of montane chaparral in mixed conifer forest landscapes in the northern Sierra Nevada, Lake Tahoe Basin, California, USA. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 132(3): 442-457. [61027]
179. Ross, Darrell W.; Walstad, John D. 1986. Vegetative competition, site-preparation, and pine performance: a literature review with reference to southcentral Oregon. Research Bulletin 58. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research Lab, College of Forestry, Oregon State University. 21 p. [2853]
181. Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Bull. 65. Berkeley, CA: University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 144 p. [2050]
198. Sweeney, J. R. 1969. The effects of wildfire on plant distribution in the Southwest. In: Wagle, R. F., ed. Proceedings of the symposium on fire ecology and the control and use of fire in wild land management; 1969 April 19; Tucson, AZ. In: Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science. Tucson, AZ: Arizona Academy of Science: 23-29. [4730]
199. Sweeney, James R. 1968. Ecology of some "fire type" vegetation in northern California. In: Proceedings, California Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; 1967 November 9-10; Hoberg, CA. Number 7. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 111-125. [6573]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Immediate Effect of Fire

More info for the term: lignotuber

Greenleaf manzanita is generally top-killed by fire where it forms a lignotuber [11,84,94,118,157,166]. In the absence of a lignotuber, fire may kill greenleaf manzanita [94,135].

References:

11. Bacon, Warren R.; Dell, John. 1985. National forest landscape management: Volume 2, Chapter 6--Fire. Agriculture Handbook No 608. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p. [38793]
84. Habeck, James R. 1984. Effects of fire on the flora of the northern Rocky Mountains. Unpublished handout included as part of the 1984 Managing Fire Effects Course, Northern Training Center, Interagency Training Group, Missoula MT. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 21 p. [41835]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
118. Keeley, Jon E. 2006. South Coast bioregion. In: Sugihara, Neil G.; van Wagtendonk, Jan W.; Shaffer, Kevin E.; Fites-Kaufman, Joann; Thode, Andrea E., eds. Fire in California's ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press: 350-390. [65557]
135. Martin, Robert E.; Dell, John D. 1978. Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-76. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 67 p. [18621]
157. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
166. Oakley, Brian B.; North, Malcolm P.; Franklin, Jerry F. 2003. The effects of fire on soil nitrogen associated with patches of the actinorhizal shrub Ceanothus cordulatus. Plant and Soil. 254: 35-46. [60513]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Post-fire Regeneration

More info for the terms: adventitious, initial off-site colonizer, root crown, secondary colonizer, shrub

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [194]:
Tall shrub, adventitious buds and/or a sprouting root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off site, initial community)
Secondary colonizer (on-site or off-site seed sources)

References:

194. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. FEIS workshop: Postfire regeneration. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [20090]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Fire Ecology

More info for the terms: cover, crown fire, duff, fire exclusion, fire-return interval, fuel, lignotuber, litter, mean fire-return interval, severity, shrub, shrubs

Fire adaptations: Greenleaf manzanita establishes after fire by seed [11,31,84,112,135,137,161,179,198,199] and sprouting from the lignotuber [15,24,31,89,97,137,157,198]. The dormancy of greenleaf manzanita seeds stored in soil and duff is broken by fire scarification [11,31,84,135,137,161,179,198,199]. Greenleaf manzanita seeds have a hard seed coat that requires fire (or other) scarification. Postfire lignotuber sprouting only occurs in some populations in California and southern Oregon, especially from parts of the Sierra Nevada, southernmost Cascade Range, and North Coast Ranges [94,99]. James [99] notes that greenleaf manzanita lignotubers may increase in size following fire in chaparral ecosystems. The physical and chemical characteristics of greenleaf manzanita produce a highly flammable shrub [30,49,114]. Kauffman [112] postulates that since greenleaf manzanita reproduction is partially dependent upon fire, heightened shrub flammability may be a fire adaptation.

FIRE REGIMES: Greenleaf manzanita is found in plant communities/ecosystems with varying FIRE REGIMES. Greenleaf manzanita may occur where fire-return intervals are as short as 1 year or as long as several hundred years. A more detailed description of greenleaf manzanita fire-return intervals follows.

Oak/chaparral woodland: The oak/chaparral woodland of Yosemite National Park, California, had a presettlement fire-return interval of 20 to 30 years. Presently, many areas have not burned for 60 to 100 years due to fire exclusion [30].

Lodgepole pine forests: Greenleaf manzanita occurs in lodgepole pine forests on the east side of the Cascade Range, the Blue Mountains, and the Okanogan Highlands of Washington north into British Columbia and south to Colorado and California. Inland Pacific Northwest lodgepole pine communities had an historic mean fire-return interval of 112 years. Lodgepole pine forests in areas susceptible to summer drought in the Inland Pacific Northwest historically had low- to medium-severity surface fires occurring at intervals of 25 to 50 years [38].

Mixed-conifer forests: Greenleaf manzanita is prevalent in open mixed-conifer forests, particularly in the Sierra Nevada. The minimum and maximum historic fire-return intervals for mixed-conifer forests of the Sierra Nevada ranged from approximately 3 to 8 years and 10 to 20 years, respectively [44,107,126,155,165]. Prior to fire exclusion in the Sierra Nevada, fires were generally low -severity surface fires, and fire-return intervals were frequent [126].

Elsewhere, the fire-return interval ranges from 15 to 29 years in mixed-conifer/chaparral sites in the San Bernardino Mountains [155], from 10 to 80 years in mixed conifer-hardwood forests of southwestern Oregon [38], and 4 to 7 years in mixed-conifer forests in Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah [32].

Using aerial photography and ground sampling, the approximate mean fire-return interval from 1925 to 1991 for the Sierra San Pedro MÃ¡rtir, Baja California, was estimated at 52 years. The Sierra San Pedro MÃ¡rtir is the last remaining mixed-conifer forest along the Pacific coast still subject to uncontrolled, periodic surface fires. It is estimated that the infrequent fires are severe surface fires. Heavy fuels result from the gradual buildup of shrub cover (predominately greenleaf manzanita, pointleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos pungens), and pinkbracted manzanita (A. pringlei ssp. drupacea)), conifer recruitment, and litter accumulation [153].

Montane chaparral: Fire-return intervals for montane chaparral sites in the Sierra Nevada are variable [189]. Nagel and Taylor [161] studied the fire ecology of 6 montane chaparral sites codominated by greenleaf manzanita and huckleberry oak (Quercus vaccinifolia) in Lake Tahoe Basin in the northern Sierra Nevada. Prior to fire exclusion in the late 1800s and early 1900s, the mean fire-return interval was 28 years, with a range of 16 to 40 years. Other research estimates that the fire-return interval ranged from 30 to 60 years [38]. When fuel moistures drop below 100%, fire is likely to remove a large portion of the shrubs in this type. When moisture drops below 100%, explosive fire conditions with rapid rates of spread and flame heights greater than 10 feet (3 m) are expected [97]. High-severity fires are typical, with most shrubs being top-killed [38].

Pinyon-juniper woodlands: In the San Bernardino Mountains, greenleaf manzanita occurs in high-elevation (7,000 feet (2,000 m)) pinyon-juniper woodlands. Using fire scar data, Wangler and Minnich [220] estimate the fire-return interval was approximately 480 years. When fire occurs, it is generally high-severity crown fire [220].

Pacific ponderosa pine forests: Fire scar data from the years 1700 to 1875 on dry ridges in the southern Sierra Nevada showed that the minimum and maximum fire-return intervals were 2 and 12 years, respectively. The mean fire-return interval for that period was 5.5 years [126]. Fire historically occurred approximately every 13 years in ponderosa pine woodlands of Lava Bed National Monument, California [137]. Greenleaf manzanita occurs throughout ponderosa pine forests on the eastern side of the Oregon Cascade Range. Using fire scar analysis, Bork [29] found that the mean historic fire-return intervals at 3 sites, Cabin Lake, Pringle Butte, and Lookout Mountain, were 24, 11, and 15 years, respectively. In a Pacific ponderosa pine/incense-cedar (Calocedrus decurrens)/greenleaf manzanita community, the fire-return interval ranged from 9 to 42 years [150].

Red fir forests: For the period 1740 to 1985, the mean fire-return interval at Swain Mountain Experimental Forest in northeastern California was 12.9 years, with a range of 1 to 57 years. Larger fires (>10 acres (5 ha)) occurred every 26.2 years, with a range of 11 to 47 years. Average fire-free intervals were shorter during the settlement period (1851-1934, x = 7.9 years) than during the presettlement (1740-1850, x = 21.4 years) and fire-exclusion (1935-1985, x = 17.3 years) periods. Fires in red fir forests are generally of low and moderate severity [203].

The following table provides fire-return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where greenleaf manzanita is important. For further information, see the FEIS review of the dominant species listed below.

Fire-return intervals for plant communities with greenleaf manzanita Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) California chaparral Adenostoma and/or Arctostaphylos spp. <35 to <100 California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 [168] sugarberry-America elm-green ash Celtis laevigata-Ulmus americana-Fraxinus pennsylvanica 218] paloverde-cactus shrub Cercidium spp./Opuntia spp. <35 to <100 [168] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1,000 [8,184] western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum <35 pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. <35 [168] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-340 [16,17,201] Sierra lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. murrayana 35-200 [5] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [64,71,115,168] Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi 5-30 Pacific ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [5] interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [5,13,132] Arizona pine Pinus ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [13,48,185] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [5,81,151] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [5,6,7] coastal Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii 40-240 [5,156,178] Pacific coast mixed evergreen Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus menziesii <35-130 [5,39] California oakwoods Quercus spp. <35 [5] oak-juniper woodland (Southwest) Quercus-Juniperus spp. <35 to <200 [168] coast live oak Quercus agrifolia 2-75 [78] canyon live oak Quercus chrysolepis <35 to 200 Oregon white oak Quercus garryana <35 [5] California black oak Quercus kelloggii 5-30 [168] redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5-200 [5,63,195] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species review

References:

5. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
6. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
168. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Haase, Sally M.; Harrington, Michael G.; Narog, Marcia G.; Sackett, Stephen S.; Wilson, Ruth C. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
8. Arno, Stephen F.; Wilson, Andrew E. 1986. Dating past fires in curlleaf mountain-mahogany communities. Journal of Range Management. 39(3): 241-243. [350]
13. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
7. Arno, Stephen F.; Scott, Joe H.; Hartwell, Michael G. 1995. Age-class structure of old growth ponderosa pine/Douglas-fir stands and its relationship to fire history. Res. Pap. INT-RP-481. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 25 p. [25928]
178. Ripple, William J. 1994. Historic spatial patterns of old forests in western Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 92(11): 45-49. [33881]
11. Bacon, Warren R.; Dell, John. 1985. National forest landscape management: Volume 2, Chapter 6--Fire. Agriculture Handbook No 608. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 89 p. [38793]
15. Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. 1980. Fire. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Burk, Jack H.; Pitts, Wanna D. Terrestrial plant ecology. Menlo Park, CA: The Benjamin/Cummings Publishing Company, Inc: 365-583. [45716]
24. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
29. Bork, Joyce L. 1985. Fire history in three vegetation types on the eastern side of the Oregon Cascades. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 94 p. Dissertation. [42571]
30. Botti, Stephen. 1979. Natural, conditional, and prescribed fire management plan. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Yosemite National Park. 51 p. [20901]
31. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands in Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18211]
32. Buchanan, Hayle; Tolman, Joseph Mark. 1983. The pre-historic fire regime of the forests of Bryce Canyon National Park, Utah. In: Fire history of the forests of Bryce Canyon National Park, UT. Final Report to the National Park Service: Contract No. PX 1330-3-0161. 40 p. Unpublished manuscript on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [15602]
38. Chappell, Christopher B.; Crawford, Rex C.; Barrett, Charley; Kagan, Jimmy; Johnson, David H.; O'Mealy, Mikell; Green, Greg A.; Ferguson, Howard L.; Edge, W. Daniel; Greda, Eva L.; O'Neil, Thomas A. 2001. Wildlife habitats: descriptions, status, trends, and system dynamics. In: Johnson, David H.; O'Neil, Thomas A., managing directors. Wildlife-habitat relationships in Oregon and Washington. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University Press: 22-114. [63870]
39. Chappell, Christopher B.; Giglio, David F. 1999. Pacific madrone forests of the Puget Trough, Washington. In: Adams, A. B.; Hamilton, Clement W., eds. The decline of the Pacific madrone (Arbutus menziesii Pursh): Current theory and research directions: Proceedings of the symposium; 1995 April 28; Seattle, WA. Seattle, WA: Save Magnolia's Madrones, Center for Urban Horticulture, Ecosystems Database Development and Research: 2-11. [40472]
44. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1982. Post-fire succession in white fir (Abies concolor) vegetation of the northern Sierra Nevada. Madrono. 29(1): 42-56. [4931]
48. Cooper, Charles F. 1961. Pattern in ponderosa pine forests. Ecology. 42(3): 493-499. [5780]
49. Countryman, Clive M. 1982. Physical characteristics of some northern California brush fuels. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-61. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 8 p. [4177]
63. Finney, Mark A.; Martin, Robert E. 1989. Fire history in a Sequoia sempervirens forest at Salt Point State Park, California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19: 1451-1457. [9845]
64. Floyd, M. Lisa; Romme, William H.; Hanna, David D. 2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Ecological Applications. 10(6): 1666-1680. [37590]
71. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; Betancourt, Julio L.; Chung-MacCoubrey, Alice L. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]
81. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]
84. Habeck, James R. 1984. Effects of fire on the flora of the northern Rocky Mountains. Unpublished handout included as part of the 1984 Managing Fire Effects Course, Northern Training Center, Interagency Training Group, Missoula MT. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 21 p. [41835]
89. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
97. Husari, Susan. 1980. Fire ecology of the vegetative habitat types in the Lassen Fire Management Planning Area. In: Swanson, John R.; Johnson, Robert C.; Merrifield, Dave; Dennestan, Alan, compilers. Lassen Fire Management Planning Area: Lassen Volcanic National Park-Caribou Wilderness Unit. Mineral, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Lassen Volcanic National Park; Susanville, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Lassen National Forest: Appendix 3: 1-23. [21408]
99. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and burls--their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botanical Review. 50(3): 225-266. [5590]
107. Kauffman, J. B.; Martin, R. E. 1990. Sprouting shrub response to different seasons and fuel consumption levels of prescribed fire in Sierra Nevada mixed conifer ecosystems. Forest Science. 36(3): 748-764. [13063]
112. Kauffman, John Boone. 1986. The ecological response of the shrub component to prescribed burning in mixed conifer ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. 235 p. Dissertation. [19559]
114. Keeley, Jon E. 1977. Seed production, seed populations in soil, and seedling production after fire for 2 congeneric pairs of sprouting and nonsprouting chaparral shrubs. Ecology. 58: 820-829. [6220]
126. Kilgore, Bruce M.; Taylor, Dan. 1979. Fire history of a sequoia-mixed conifer forest. Ecology. 60(1): 129-142. [7641]
132. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., tech. coords. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
135. Martin, Robert E.; Dell, John D. 1978. Planning for prescribed burning in the Inland Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-76. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 67 p. [18621]
137. Martin, Robert E.; Johnson, Arlen H. 1979. Fire management of Lava Beds National Monument. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st conference on scientific research in the National Parks: Volume II; 1976 November 9-12; New Orleans, LA. NPS Transactions and Proceedings Series No. 5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 1209-1217. [1537]
150. McNeil, Robert Curlan. 1975. Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine - white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 171 p. Thesis. [5737]
151. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]
156. Morrison, Peter H.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-254. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. [13074]
157. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
161. Nagel, Thomas A.; Taylor, Alan H. 2005. Fire and persistence of montane chaparral in mixed conifer forest landscapes in the northern Sierra Nevada, Lake Tahoe Basin, California, USA. Journal of the Torrey Botanical Society. 132(3): 442-457. [61027]
165. North, Malcolm; Oakley, Brian; Chen, Jiquan; Erickson, Heather; Gray, Andrew; Izzo, Antonio; Johnson, Dale; Ma, Siyan; Marra, Jim; Meyer, Marc; Purcell, Kathryn; Rambo, Tom; Rizzo, Dave; Roath, Brent; Schowalter, Tim. 2002. Vegetation and ecological characteristics of mixed-conifer and red fir forests at the Teakettle Experimental Forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-186. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 52 p. [47226]
179. Ross, Darrell W.; Walstad, John D. 1986. Vegetative competition, site-preparation, and pine performance: a literature review with reference to southcentral Oregon. Research Bulletin 58. Corvallis, OR: Forest Research Lab, College of Forestry, Oregon State University. 21 p. [2853]
184. Schultz, Brad W. 1987. Ecology of curlleaf mountain mahogany (Cercocarpus ledifolius) in western and central Nevada: population structure and dynamics. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 111 p. Thesis. [7064]
185. Seklecki, Mariette T.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1996. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; DeBano, Leonard F.; Baker, Malchus B., Jr.; Gottfried, Gerald J.; Solis-Garza, Gilberto; Edminster, Carleton B.; Neary, Daniel G.; Allen, Larry S.; Hamre, R. H., tech. coords. Effects of fire on Madrean Province ecosystems: a symposium proceedings; 1996 March 11-15; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 238-246. [28082]
195. Stuart, John D. 1987. Fire history of an old-growth forest of Sequoia sempervirens (Taxodiaceae) forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California. Madrono. 34(2): 128-141. [7277]
198. Sweeney, J. R. 1969. The effects of wildfire on plant distribution in the Southwest. In: Wagle, R. F., ed. Proceedings of the symposium on fire ecology and the control and use of fire in wild land management; 1969 April 19; Tucson, AZ. In: Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science. Tucson, AZ: Arizona Academy of Science: 23-29. [4730]
199. Sweeney, James R. 1968. Ecology of some "fire type" vegetation in northern California. In: Proceedings, California Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; 1967 November 9-10; Hoberg, CA. Number 7. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 111-125. [6573]
201. Tande, Gerald F. 1979. Fire history and vegetation pattern of coniferous forests in Jasper National Park, Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 1912-1931. [18676]
203. Taylor, Alan H. 1993. Fire history and structure of red fir (Abies magnifica) forests, Swain Mountain Experimental Forest, Cascade Range, northeastern California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 23(8): 1672-1678. [22282]
220. Wangler, Michael J.; Minnich, Richard A. 1996. Fire and succession in pinyon-juniper woodlands of the San Bernardino Mountains, California. Madrono. 43(4): 493-514. [27891]
16. Barrett, Stephen W. 1993. FIRE REGIMES on the Clearwater and Nez Perce National Forests north-central Idaho. Final Report: Order No. 43-0276-3-0112. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 21 p. [41883]
17. Barrett, Stephen W.; Arno, Stephen F.; Key, Carl H. 1991. FIRE REGIMES of western larch - lodgepole pine forests in Glacier National Park, Montana. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 21: 1711-1720. [17290]
78. Greenlee, Jason M.; Langenheim, Jean H. 1990. Historic FIRE REGIMES and their relation to vegetation patterns in the Monterey Bay area of California. The American Midland Naturalist. 124(2): 239-253. [15144]
115. Keeley, Jon E. 1981. Reproductive cycles and FIRE REGIMES. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; Lotan, J. E.; Reiners, W. A., tech. coords. FIRE REGIMES and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 231-277. [4395]
153. Minnich, R. A.; Barbour, M. G.; Burk, J. H.; Sosa-Ramirez, J. 2000. California mixed-conifer forests under unmanaged FIRE REGIMES in the Sierra San Pedro Martir, Baja California, Mexico. Journal of Biogeography. 27(1): 105-129. [38479]
155. Minnich, Richard A. 1999. Vegetation, FIRE REGIMES, and forest dynamics. In: Miller, P. R.; McBride, J. R., eds. Oxidant air pollution impacts in the montane forests of southern California: a case study of the San Bernardino Mountains. Ecological Studies: Analysis and Synthesis, Vol. 134. New York: Springer-Verlag: 44-80. [30370]
189. Skinner, Carl N.; Chang, Chi-ru. 1996. FIRE REGIMES, past and present. In: Status of the Sierra Nevada. Sierra Nevada Ecosystem Project: Final report to Congress. Volume II: Assessments and scientific basis for management options. Wildland Resources Center Report No. 37. Davis, CA: University of California, Centers for Water and Wildland Resources: 1041-1069. [28975]

Source:

License:

Successional Status

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: cover, density, fuel, interference, litter, shrub, shrubs

Greenleaf manzanita is shade intolerant [4,96,149], prefers disturbed sites [96], and typically is an early to midseral species [12,87,149,150,175,177]. Its ability to colonize quickly after disturbance and interfere with conifer seedling growth allows it to dominate for many decades after disturbance. Without further disturbance, conifers eventually overtop greenleaf manzanita. Greenleaf manzanita may still inhibit conifer growth after being overtopped until canopy closure shades it out [42,43,46,198]. In the absence of further disturbance, it may take from 30 to 100 years for conifers to gain dominance over shrubs [23,24,59,116,130,172,186,188,192].

Effect on conifers: Greenleaf manzanita inhibits the growth of Pacific ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. ponderosa) [10,34,129,142,186,202,219] and coast Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii) [101,204] seedlings. Greenleaf manzanita's ability to severely deplete available soil moisture is the greatest contributing factor in greenleaf manzanita inhibition of Pacific ponderosa pine seedling growth [172,173]. The ability to extract water from moisture-depleted soil is likely attributable to a better-developed root system than that of conifer seedlings.

In plots with 0% greenleaf manzanita cover and 100% Pacific ponderosa pine seedling cover, Pacific ponderosa pine seedling production 2.5 years after establishment averaged 5 kg/300 mÂ². In plots with 25% greenleaf manzanita and 75% Pacific ponderosa pine cover, seedling production was reduced to 2 kg/300 mÂ², a 60% decrease. Anderson and Helms [4] found that greenleaf manzanita seedling mean root:shoot ratio and mean root:total root length were 30% and 35%, respectively: greater than ponderosa pine seedling ratios. Tinnin and Kirkpatrick [204] found that Douglas-fir seedling root growth was significantly (P<0.05 and P<0.001) less when growing in greenleaf manzanita leaf litter than in the absence of greenleaf manzanita leaf litter. In a review by Tappeiner and others [202], greenleaf manzanita was described as reducing pine (Pinus spp.) volume by 9% to 37%, reducing conifer height, crown volume, and biomass, and causing ponderosa pine moisture stress that decreased productivity.

In a review by Aune [10], increased shrub cover (greenleaf manzanita, snowbrush ceanothus, and Klamath plum (Prunus subcordata)) is shown to decrease Pacific ponderosa pine survival and growth rates.

Effects of shrub interference on survival, height, and diameter of Pacific ponderosa pine
at Mt Shasta, California, over an 18-year period Pacific ponderosa pine characteristics % shrub cover 0 21 35 44 Survival (%) 98 98 98 80 Height (feet) 16.5 12.0 9.3 5.8 Diameter (inches) 5.1 3.9 2.9 1.3

Greenleaf manzanita fields may cause substantial mortality of white fir and sugar pine seedlings. On the Teakettle Experimental Forest east of Fresno, California, fields of greenleaf manzanita were burned in October 1999, either lightly (no added fuel, some foliage burned) or with a "hot" fire (fuels added before burn, near complete foliage burned off and some stems charred). Burn and unburned control plots were planted with either white fir or sugar pine seedlings in October 2000. At the end of the second growing season (October 2002), total white fir survival rate across both treatments was 0.6%, which was significantly lower (P=0.02) than total survival of sugar pine (3.8%). Only early on (spring 2001) was there a significant difference (P=0.01) between treatments and survival rates. In spring 2001 white fir and sugar pine survival was lower on "hot" burn sites for both species than the light-fuel treatments [77].

Fire: Within its range, greenleaf manzanita is very prevalent as a pioneer species following fire [50,66,123,125,181,229]. Following crown fires in white fir and yellow pine forests of the Sierra Nevada, burn sites are "rapidly" occupied by montane chaparral shrub species including greenleaf manzanita [44,97,199].

In the pinyon-juniper (Pinus monophylla, P. edulis-Juniperus occidentalis) woodlands of the San Bernardino Mountains at elevations greater than 7,000 feet (2,000 m), greenleaf manzanita had 10.7% cover and a density of 1,416/ha on 70-year-old burn sites. Following fires in the pinyon-juniper woodlands, which were mostly severe canopy fires, shrub cover and density increased for 30 to 50 years. Based on observation from other sites and aerial photography, chronosequence sampling, and replication of the 1929 to 1935 California Vegetation Type Map, the researchers concluded that mature shrubs acted as nurse plants for singleleaf pinyon, which established beneath shrubs at approximately 25 to 40 years after fire. Around postfire year 50, shrubs began to decline, and by postfire years 100 to 150, a mature woodland returned [220].

Logging: Greenleaf manzanita thrives following logging in mixed-conifer forests [61,72,228]. Forty years following logging of mixed-conifer forests on the Blacks Mountain in northeastern California, greenleaf manzanita cover was significantly greater (P<0.05) on 30-year-old cut sites than uncut sites [215,216].

References:

87. Harper, Kimball T.; Sanderson, Stewart C.; McArthur, E. Durant. 2003. Pinyon-juniper woodlands in Zion National Park. Western North American Naturalist. 63(2): 189-202. [44853]
4. Anderson, Paul D.; Helms, John A. 1994. Tissue water relations of Pinus ponderosa and Arctostaphylos patula exposed to various levels of soil moisture depletion. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 24: 1495-1502. [23871]
10. Aune, Philip S. 1991. Seed-tree method. In: Genetics/silviculture workshop proceedings; 1990 August 27-31; Wenatchee, WA. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Timber Management Staff: 224-234. [16026]
12. Bailey, Warren Hutchinson. 1963. Revegetation in the 1914-1915 devastated area of Lassen Volcanic National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 195 p. Dissertation. [29203]
23. Biswell, H. H.; Buchanan, H.; Gibbens, R. P. 1966. Ecology of the vegetation of a second-growth sequoia forest. Ecology. 47(4): 630-634. [55065]
24. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
34. Busse, M. D.; Cochran, P. H.; Barrett, J. W. 1996. Changes in ponderosa pine site productivity following removal of understory vegetation. Soil Science Society of America Journal. 60: 1614-1621. [28434]
42. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1981. Photosynthesis, xylem pressure potential, and leaf conductance of three montane chaparral species in California. Forest Science. 27(4): 627-639. [8761]
43. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1982. Growth responses of white fir to decreased shading and root competition by montane chaparral shrubs. Forest Science. 28(2): 309-320. [35046]
44. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1982. Post-fire succession in white fir (Abies concolor) vegetation of the northern Sierra Nevada. Madrono. 29(1): 42-56. [4931]
46. Conard, Susan G.; Sparks, Steven R. 1993. Abies concolor growth responses to vegetation changes following shrub removal, northern Sierra Nevada, California. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-218. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 9 p. [22327]
50. Crawford, Ralph H.; Carpenter, Steven E.; Mayfield, John; Martin, Robert E. 1987. Fungi from foliage of Arctostaphylos patula, Castanopsis chrysophylla, and Ceanothus velutinus. Res. Note PNW-RN-462. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 6 p. [286]
59. Everett, Yvonne. 1997. A guide to selected non-timber forest products of the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area, Shasta-Trinity and Six Rivers National Forests, California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-162. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 64 p. [28986]
61. Fernau, R. F.; Benayas, J. M. Rey; Barbour, M. G. 1998. Early secondary succession following clearcuts in red fir forests of the Sierra Nevada, California. Madrono. 45(2): 131-136. [30094]
66. Fried, Jeremy S.; Bolsinger, Charles L.; Beardsley, Debby. 2004. Chaparral in southern and central coastal California in the mid-1990s: area, ownership, condition, and change. Resource Bulletin PNW-RB-240. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 86 p. [50376]
72. Graham, Joseph N.; Murray, Edward W.; Minore, Don. 1982. Environment, vegetation, and regeneration after timber harvest in the Hungry-Pickett area of southwest Oregon. Res. Note PNW-400. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [8424]
77. Gray, Andrew N.; Zald, Harold S. J.; Kern, Ruth A.; North, Malcolm. 2005. Stand conditions associated with tree regeneration in Sierran mixed-conifer forests. Forest Science. 51(3): 198-210. [55853]
96. Hubbert, K. R.; Beyers, J. L.; Graham, R. C. 2001. Roles of weathered bedrock and soil in seasonal water relations of Pinus jeffreyi and Arctostaphylos patula. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 31: 1947-1957. [43216]
97. Husari, Susan. 1980. Fire ecology of the vegetative habitat types in the Lassen Fire Management Planning Area. In: Swanson, John R.; Johnson, Robert C.; Merrifield, Dave; Dennestan, Alan, compilers. Lassen Fire Management Planning Area: Lassen Volcanic National Park-Caribou Wilderness Unit. Mineral, CA: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Lassen Volcanic National Park; Susanville, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Lassen National Forest: Appendix 3: 1-23. [21408]
101. Jaramillo, Annabelle E. 1988. Growth of Douglas-fir in southwestern Oregon after removal of competing vegetation. Res. Note PNW-470. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 10 p. [6224]
116. Keeley, Jon E. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in California chaparral. Ecology. 68(2): 434-443. [5403]
123. Kilgore, Bruce M. 1971. The role of fire in managing red fir forests. In: Transactions, 36th North American wildlife and natural resources conference; 1971 March 7-10; Portland, OR. Washington, DC: Wildlife Management Institute: 405-416. [6474]
125. Kilgore, Bruce M.; Biswell, H. H. 1971. Seedling germination following fire in a giant Sequoia forest. California Agriculture. 25(2): 8-10. [6355]
129. Lanini, W. T.; Radosevich, S. R. 1986. Response of three conifer species to site preparation and shrub control. Forest Science. 32(1): 61-77. [4711]
130. Lanini, W. Thomas; Radosevich, Steven R. 1982. Herbicide effectiveness in response to season of application and shrub physiology. Weed Science. 30: 467-475. [3389]
142. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1989. Competing vegetation in ponderosa pine plantations: ecology and control. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-113. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [15923]
149. McDonald, Philip M.; Laurie, William D.; Hill, Richard. 1998. Early growth characteristics of planted deerbrush and greenleaf manzanita seedlings in California. Res. Note PSW-RN-442. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 6 p. [31114]
150. McNeil, Robert Curlan. 1975. Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine - white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 171 p. Thesis. [5737]
172. Radosevich, S. R. 1984. Interference between greenleaf manzanita (Arctostaphylos patula) and ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa). In: Duryea, Mary L.; Brown, Gregory N., eds. Seedling physiology and reforestation success: Proceedings of the physiology working group technical session; 1983 October 16-20; Portland, OR. In: Forestry Sciences. 14(14): 259-270. [65747]
173. Radosevich, Steven R. 1985. Ecological principles of plant competition. In: Proceedings, Southern Weed Science Society 38th annual meeting; 1985 January 14-16; Houston, TX. Champaign, IL: Southern Weed Science Society: 293-304. [65759]
175. Rejmanek, Marcel; Leps, Jan. 1996. Negative associations can reveal interspecific competition and reversal of competitive hierarchies during succession. Oikos. 76(1): 161-168. [41136]
177. Riegel, G. M.; Svejcar, T. J.; Busse, M. D. 2002. Does the presence of Wyethia mollis affect growth of Pinus jeffreyi seedlings. Western North American Naturalist. 62(2): 141-150. [47183]
181. Sampson, Arthur W. 1944. Plant succession on burned chaparral lands in northern California. Bull. 65. Berkeley, CA: University of California, College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 144 p. [2050]
186. Shainsky, L. J.; Radosevich, S. R. 1986. Growth and water relations of Pinus ponderosa seedlings in competitive regimes with Arctostaphylos patula seedlings. Journal of Applied Ecology. 23: 957-966. [11992]
188. Skau, C. M.; Meeuwig, R. O.; Townsend, T. W. 1970. Ecology of eastside Sierra chaparral: A literature review. R71. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Max C. Fleischmann College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 14 p. [3798]
192. Stark, N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to Nevada. Bull. No. B-7. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture, Desert Research Institute. 209 p. In cooperation with: Nevada State Highway Department. [47]
198. Sweeney, J. R. 1969. The effects of wildfire on plant distribution in the Southwest. In: Wagle, R. F., ed. Proceedings of the symposium on fire ecology and the control and use of fire in wild land management; 1969 April 19; Tucson, AZ. In: Journal of the Arizona Academy of Science. Tucson, AZ: Arizona Academy of Science: 23-29. [4730]
199. Sweeney, James R. 1968. Ecology of some "fire type" vegetation in northern California. In: Proceedings, California Tall Timbers Fire Ecology Conference; 1967 November 9-10; Hoberg, CA. Number 7. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 111-125. [6573]
204. Tinnin, Robert O.; Kirkpatrick, Lee Ann. 1985. The allelopathic influence of broadleaf trees and shrubs on seedlings of Douglas-fir. Forest Science. 31(4): 945-952. [9692]
215. Vora, Robin S. 1988. Species frequency in relation to timber harvest methods and elevation in the pine type of northeast California. Madrono. 35(2): 150-158. [3541]
216. Vora, Robin S. 1993. Effects of timber harvest treatments on understory plants and herbivores in northeastern California after 40 years. Madrono. 40(1): 31-37. [20709]
219. Wagner, Robert G.; Petersen, Terry D.; Ross, Darrell W.; Radosevich, Steven R. 1989. Competition thresholds for the survival and growth of ponderosa pine seedlings associated with woody and herbaceous vegetation. New Forests. 3(2): 151-170. [15552]
220. Wangler, Michael J.; Minnich, Richard A. 1996. Fire and succession in pinyon-juniper woodlands of the San Bernardino Mountains, California. Madrono. 43(4): 493-514. [27891]
228. Yerkes, Vern P. 1960. Occurrence of shrubs and herbaceous vegetation after clear cutting old-growth Douglas-fir. Res. Pap. PNW-34. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [8937]
229. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A.; Kay, Burgess L.; Budy, Jerry D. 1986. California black oak woodlands in the Great Basin. Transactions of the Western Section of the Wildlife Society. 22: 117-120. [65869]
202. Tappeiner, John C., II; McDonald, Philip M.; Newton, Michael; Harrington, Timothy B. 1992. Ecology of hardwoods, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation: effects on conifer regeneration. In: Hobbs, Stephen D.; Tesch, Steven D.; Owston, Peyton W.; [and others], eds. Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory: 136-164. [22157]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Regeneration Processes

More info for the terms: basal area, charate, density, layering, lignotuber, top-kill

Greenleaf manzanita regenerates from seeds [59,62,94,99,120,149,167,188], layering [24,90,94,98,106,113,140,141], and in the Sierra Nevada and southwestern Oregon, sprouting from the lignotuber [59,62,80,89,93,94,98,99,149,188].

Pollination: Greenleaf manzanita is insect pollinated [139].

Breeding system: The mating system of greenleaf manzanita is primarily outcrossing [139].

Seed production: Greenleaf manzanita produces large seed crops nearly every year [149]. In a mixed-conifer community of the Sierra Nevada, greenleaf manzanita populations produced a mean of 10,000 seeds/acre [188]. In general, greenleaf manzanita plants do not begin to flower and fruit until the age of 8 to 10 [175]. Where greenleaf manzanita populations sprout from a lignotuber, seed production is less than in nonsprouting populations [98,120].

Seed dispersal: Greenleaf manzanita seeds are dispersed by birds [139,175] and mammals including rodents, American black bears, and coyotes [112,117,139,175]. Seeds are dispersed from late summer [116] until the following spring [139,175]. The vast majority of Arctostaphylos spp. seeds are dispersed beneath the parent's canopy [117].

Seed banking: Greenleaf manzanita utilizes a seed bank [143,171,202]. The hard seeds of greenleaf manzanita can remain dormant in the soil for hundreds of years until stimulated to germinate [50,108].

Germination: Greenleaf manzanita seeds require scarification (by heat or disturbance such as logging activities) [67,99,109] followed by a period of cold stratification [18,109] for germination to occur. Seeds generally germinate on burned sites in the spring [117]. Seedling densities as high as 25,233/ha have been reported following fire in the northern Sierra Nevada [110].

Fire-induced germination: Seeds can be stimulated to germinate by heat and/or chamise (Adenostoma fasciculatum) charate, followed by stratification [116,117]. Keeley [116] investigated the effects light, darkness, temperature, and charate had on greenleaf manzanita seed germination. Germination trials were conducted on filter paper and in soil. Greenleaf manzanita seeds germinated significantly (P<0.001) better in the filter paper treatment, and the following results are from the seeds germinated on filter paper. Temperature treatments were an unheated control, 158 Â°F (70 Â°C) for 1 hour; 212 Â°F (100 Â°C) for 5 minutes; and 248 Â°F (120 Â°C) for 5 minutes. One set of seeds received a 0.50-g application of chamise charate prior to temperature treatments. Following charate and temperature treatments, the seeds were stratified for 1 month at 41 Â°F (5 Â°C) and then incubated in the light or dark treatment for 3 weeks at 73 Â°F (23 Â°C). Light had a significant (P<0.001) negative effect on greenleaf manzanita germination. Further, in the light treatment, seeds subjected to 248 Â°F for 5 minutes germinated significantly (P<0.05) better than either seeds exposed to 158 Â°F for 1 hour or the no-heat control seeds. In the dark treatment, seeds exposed to charate and either no heat or 212 Â°F for 5 minutes germinated significantly (P<0.05) better than seeds not exposed to charate and either no-heat or 212 Â°F treatments. Further, in the dark/charate treatments, greenleaf manzanita seed germination significantly (P<0.05) decreased in the 248 Â°F treatment [116].

Greenleaf manzanita germination with light, heat, and charate treatments

Germination (%)

Treatment Light Dark Control 158 Â°F
(1 hour) 212 Â°F
(5 min) 248 Â°F
(5 min) Control 158 Â°F
(1 hour) 212 Â°F
(5 min) 248 Â°F
(5 min) Control 1 3 4 6 6 12 10 7 Charate 1 3 1 4 17 19 18 10

Seedling establishment/growth: Greenleaf manzanita seedlings rarely occur on unburned or undisturbed sites [24]. James [99] states that "fire prepares a soil environment conducive to greenleaf manzanita seedling growth by increasing both the ash layer and soil pH, and destroying allelopathic soil chemicals". Seedling establishment generally occurs the first postfire year [117]. In a montane chaparral site in northern California, greenleaf manzanita seedlings establishing after fire reached a height of 3 feet (1 m) within 3 years [24].

In the first few years of development, greenleaf manzanita seedlings generally grow multiple stems. In May 1992, greenleaf manzanita seedlings ranging from 2 to 4 inches (5-10 cm) tall were planted at an elevation of 3,600 feet (1,100 m) on an unburned site in the Shasta-Trinity National Forest, California. Greenleaf manzanita seedlings were single stemmed at the time of planting and remained so throughout the first growing season. New sprouts appeared by the second growing season. At the end of the second growing season, 76% of seedlings had multiple stems, and that proportion remained constant throughout the 4-year study. At the end of the 1995 growing season, 89% of the seedlings had survived, yet none had produced flowers [149].

Mean growth of greenleaf manzanita seedlings at the end of the 1992-1995 growing seasons Growth characteristics 1992 1993 1994 1995 Height (cm) 12.4 31.1 47.1 63.2 Crown width (cm) 10.9 27.8 47.7 68.6

Vegetative regeneration: Greenleaf manzanita regenerates vegetatively by layering [24,90,94,98,106,113,140,141] and sprouting from the lignotuber [59,62,76,80,93,94,98,99,149,188,224,225].

Greenleaf manzanitas with lignotubers sprout following total or partial top-kill. In an early May clipping study in the Siskiyou Mountains in southwestern Oregon, greenleaf manzanita was either cut to ground level or had 50% of the plant removed. While plants cut to ground level did not show immediate growth, plants with growth only partially removed sprouted by 1 July. By posttreatment year 1, greenleaf manzanita density was substantially greater after clipping than before treatment on both sites [93].

Mean density and basal area of greenleaf manzanita plants subjected for total and partial top-kill

Treatments

Stems/ha Basal area (mÂ²/ha) Total removal pretreatment 40,895 4.01 immediate posttreatment 0 0 1 year after treatment 308,504 1.40 Partial removal pretreatment 73,389 7.54 immediate posttreatment 56,092 4.65 1 year after treatment 208,098 4.72

References:

113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
117. Keeley, Jon E. 1991. Seed germination and life history syndromes in the California chaparral. The Botanical Review. 57(2): 81-116. [36973]
18. Baskin, Carol C.; Baskin, Jerry M. 2001. Seeds: ecology, biogeography, and evolution of dormancy and germination. San Diego, CA: Academic Press. 666 p. [60775]
24. Biswell, Harold H. 1974. Effects of fire on chaparral. In: Kozlowski, T. T.; Ahlgren, C. E., eds. Fire and ecosystems. New York: Academic Press: 321-364. [14542]
50. Crawford, Ralph H.; Carpenter, Steven E.; Mayfield, John; Martin, Robert E. 1987. Fungi from foliage of Arctostaphylos patula, Castanopsis chrysophylla, and Ceanothus velutinus. Res. Note PNW-RN-462. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 6 p. [286]
59. Everett, Yvonne. 1997. A guide to selected non-timber forest products of the Hayfork Adaptive Management Area, Shasta-Trinity and Six Rivers National Forests, California. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-GTR-162. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 64 p. [28986]
62. Fiddler, Gary O.; McDonald, Philip M. 1999. Treatment duration and time since disturbance affect vegetation development in a young ponderosa pine plantation. Res. Note PSW-RN-424. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 8 p. [37341]
67. Fulbright, Timothy E. 1987. Natural and artificial scarification of seeds with hard coats. In: Frasier, Gary W.; Evans, Raymond A., eds. Seed and seedbed ecology of rangeland plants: proceedings of symposium; 1987 April 21-23; Tucson, AZ. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service: 40-47. [3706]
76. Gratkowski, H. 1978. Herbicides for shrub and weed control in western Oregon. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-77. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [6539]
80. Griffin, James R. 1967. Soil moisture and vegetation patterns in northern California forests. Res. Pap. PSW-46. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 22 p. [52006]
89. Hayes, Doris W.; Garrison, George A. 1960. Key to important woody plants of eastern Oregon and Washington. Agric. Handb. 148. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 227 p. [1109]
90. Hickman, James C., ed. 1993. The Jepson manual: Higher plants of California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1400 p. [21992]
93. Hobbs, Stephen D.; Wearstler, Kenneth A., Jr. 1985. Effects of cutting sclerophyll brush on sprout development and Douglas- fir growth. Forestry Ecology and Management. 13: 69-81. [9690]
94. Holmgren, Noel H.; Holmgren, Patricia K.; Cronquist, Arthur. 2005. Intermountain flora: Vascular plants of the Intermountain West, U.S.A. Vol. 2, Part B: Subclass Dilleniidae. New York: The New York Botanical Garden. 488 p. [63251]
98. James, Susanne Marie. 1983. Lignotubers and vegetative regeneration of Arctostaphylos in the California chaparral--anatomy , morphology and ecological significance. Riverside, CA: University of California. 133 p. Dissertation. [12197]
99. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and burls--their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botanical Review. 50(3): 225-266. [5590]
108. Kauffman, J. B.; Sapsis, D. B. 1989. The natural role of fire in Oregon's high desert. In: Oregon's high desert: the last 100 years. Special Report 841. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Agricultural Experiment Station: 15-19. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Agricultural Research Service. [15514]
109. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, R. E. 1985. A preliminary investigation on the feasibility of preharvest prescribed burning for shrub control. In: Proceedings, 6th annual forestry vegetation management conference; 1984 November 1-2; Redding, CA. Redding, CA: Forest Vegetation Management Conference: 89-114. [7526]
110. Kauffman, J. Boone; Martin, R. E. 1991. Factors influencing the scarification and germination of three montane Sierra Nevada shrubs. Northwest Science. 65(4): 180-187. [16344]
112. Kauffman, John Boone. 1986. The ecological response of the shrub component to prescribed burning in mixed conifer ecosystems. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Berkeley. 235 p. Dissertation. [19559]
116. Keeley, Jon E. 1987. Role of fire in seed germination of woody taxa in California chaparral. Ecology. 68(2): 434-443. [5403]
120. Kelly, Victoria R.; Parker, V. Thomas. 1991. Percentage seed set, sprouting habit and ploidy level in Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae). Madrono. 38(4): 227-232. [16884]
139. McArthur, E. Durant. 1989. Breeding systems in shrubs. In: McKell, Cyrus M., ed. The biology and utilization of shrubs. San Diego, CA: Academic Press, Inc.: 341-361. [8039]
140. McDonald, Philip M.; Abbott, Celest S.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1994. Response of young ponderosa pines, shrubs, and ferns to three release treatments. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 9(1): 24-28. [22809]
141. McDonald, Philip M.; Abbott, Celeste S. 1997. Vegetation trends in a 31-year-old ponderosa pine plantation: effect of different shrub densities. Res. Paper PSW-RP-231. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 35 p. [38454]
143. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1990. Ponderosa pine seedlings and competing vegetation: ecology, growth, and cost. Res. Pap. PSW-199. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 10 p. [15769]
149. McDonald, Philip M.; Laurie, William D.; Hill, Richard. 1998. Early growth characteristics of planted deerbrush and greenleaf manzanita seedlings in California. Res. Note PSW-RN-442. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 6 p. [31114]
167. Parker, Karl G. 1975. Some important Utah range plants. Extension Service Bulletin EC-383. Logan, UT: Utah State University. 174 p. [9878]
171. Quick, Clarence R. 1956. Viable seeds from the duff and soil of sugar pine forests. Forest Science. 2: 36-42. [1921]
175. Rejmanek, Marcel; Leps, Jan. 1996. Negative associations can reveal interspecific competition and reversal of competitive hierarchies during succession. Oikos. 76(1): 161-168. [41136]
188. Skau, C. M.; Meeuwig, R. O.; Townsend, T. W. 1970. Ecology of eastside Sierra chaparral: A literature review. R71. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, Max C. Fleischmann College of Agriculture, Agricultural Experiment Station. 14 p. [3798]
224. Wells, Philip V. 1968. New taxa, combinations, and chromosome numbers in Arctostaphylos (Ericaceae). Madrono. 19: 193-210. [12171]
225. Wells, Philip V. 1987. The leafy-bracted, crown-sprouting manzanitas, an ancestral group in Arctostaphylos. Four Seasons. 7(4): 4-27. [8799]
106. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]
202. Tappeiner, John C., II; McDonald, Philip M.; Newton, Michael; Harrington, Timothy B. 1992. Ecology of hardwoods, shrubs, and herbaceous vegetation: effects on conifer regeneration. In: Hobbs, Stephen D.; Tesch, Steven D.; Owston, Peyton W.; [and others], eds. Reforestation practices in southwestern Oregon and northern California. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, Forest Research Laboratory: 136-164. [22157]

Source:

License:

Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the term: phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [174] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte

References:

174. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Life Form

More info for the term: shrub

Shrub

Source:

License:

Cyclicity

Phenology

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the term: shrub

The flowering period of greenleaf manzanita in several states and regions is presented below.

Greenleaf manzanita flowering period State/region Flowering period Arizona May to June [113] California April to June [160] Nevada April to June [106,192] southern California May to June [159] Utah April to June [197] Great Basin May to June [157] Pacific Northwest May to June [92] Baja California March to June [227]

Flowering of greenleaf manzanita may be triggered by summer moisture stress [20]. The number of flowers produced is partially dependent upon the amount of the previous year's precipitation. Flower buds form 1 year prior to maturity. They are dormant the following summer, fall, and winter, and bloom the next spring [157].

Fruits ripen in late summer to early fall [205]. Generally, this species fruits over its entire range between July and October [20,217]. In Nevada, fruiting occurs from May to September [217]. The fruits may occasionally persist on the shrub year-round [209]. Most chaparral species experience the greatest amount of growth in May and June. Growth ceases in mid-July due to high air temperatures and low soil moisture [99].

The seasonal development of greenleaf manzanita was as follows in a Pacific ponderosa pine forest [51]:

Greenleaf manzanita phenological development in central Oregon Date

Developmental stage

6 May Few blossoms beginning to develop 27 May Blossoming near completion 5 July Blossoming complete and new fruits formed 22 September No visible sign of growth

References:

113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2nd ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
160. Munz, Philip A.; Keck, David D. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
20. Berg, Arthur R. 1974. Arctostaphylos Adans. manzanita. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 228-231. [7428]
51. Dahms, Walter B. 1961. Chemical control of brush in ponderosa pine forests of central Oregon. Res. Pap. 39. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [66103]
92. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur; Ownbey, Marion. 1959. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 4: Ericaceae through Campanulaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 510 p. [1170]
99. James, Susanne. 1984. Lignotubers and burls--their structure, function and ecological significance in Mediterranean ecosystems. Botanical Review. 50(3): 225-266. [5590]
157. Mozingo, Hugh N. 1987. Shrubs of the Great Basin: A natural history. Reno, NV: University of Nevada Press. 342 p. [1702]
159. Munz, Philip A. 1974. A flora of southern California. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1086 p. [4924]
192. Stark, N. 1966. Review of highway planting information appropriate to Nevada. Bull. No. B-7. Reno, NV: University of Nevada, College of Agriculture, Desert Research Institute. 209 p. In cooperation with: Nevada State Highway Department. [47]
197. Sutton, Richard F.; Johnson, Craig W. 1974. Landscape plants from Utah's mountains. EC-368. Logan, UT: Utah State University, Cooperative Extension Service. 135 p. [49]
205. U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 1937. Range plant handbook. Washington, DC. 532 p. [2387]
209. Van Dersal, William R. 1938. Native woody plants of the United States, their erosion-control and wildlife values. Misc. Publ. No. 303. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 362 p. [4240]
217. Vories, Kimery C. 1981. Growing Colorado plants from seed: a state of the art. Volume I: Shrubs. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-103. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 80 p. [3426]
227. Wiggins, Ira L. 1980. Flora of Baja California. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1025 p. [21993]
106. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 2 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Conservation Status

Information on state-level protected status of plants in the United States is available at Plants Database.

Source:

License:

National NatureServe Conservation Status

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

NatureServe Conservation Status

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Status

Please consult the PLANTS Web site and your State Department of Natural Resources for this plant’s current status, such as, state noxious status and wetland indicator values.

Source:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Management

Management considerations

More info for the term: wildfire

Browsing:
Domestic sheep browsing reduces greenleaf manzanita
biomass. Over a 7-year period, 1,000 to 1,500 domestic sheep grazed a 2,000+
acre (800 ha) site containing large amounts of greenleaf manzanita and snowbrush ceanothus from
approximately 1 May until late August to late September. The site, on the Plumas
National Forest, California, sits at an elevation of 6,600 feet (2,000 m) and
had been burned by wildfire 2 to 3 years prior to stocking. After 7
years, volume of greenleaf manzanita on grazed sites was 1,302 ftÂ³/acre
compared to 5,232 ftÂ³/acre on ungrazed sites [144].

Herbicides:
Research papers are available on the effects of greenleaf manzanita herbicide treatments on
conifer species [40,41,45,75,121,140,143,147,148,221].
Host species:
Greenleaf manzanita is a host to the manzanita leaf-gall aphid, which produces
galls on the leaves and flower
buds [152]. On the Deschutes National Forest, greenleaf
manzanita is host to at least 12 fungal species, 3 of which are "important" plant pathogens [50].
Mechanical control: While the
work is arduous, greenleaf manzanita can be successfully controlled by grubbing.
In a young northern California Pacific ponderosa pine plantation, greenleaf
manzanita was significantly reduced (P<0.05) over a 10-year period
on grubbed sites [62]. Other mechanical control studies are available [145].

References:

50. Crawford, Ralph H.; Carpenter, Steven E.; Mayfield, John; Martin, Robert E. 1987. Fungi from foliage of Arctostaphylos patula, Castanopsis chrysophylla, and Ceanothus velutinus. Res. Note PNW-RN-462. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 6 p. [286]
62. Fiddler, Gary O.; McDonald, Philip M. 1999. Treatment duration and time since disturbance affect vegetation development in a young ponderosa pine plantation. Res. Note PSW-RN-424. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 8 p. [37341]
140. McDonald, Philip M.; Abbott, Celest S.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1994. Response of young ponderosa pines, shrubs, and ferns to three release treatments. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 9(1): 24-28. [22809]
143. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1990. Ponderosa pine seedlings and competing vegetation: ecology, growth, and cost. Res. Pap. PSW-199. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 10 p. [15769]
41. Cole, Elizabeth C.; Newton, Michael; White, Diane E. 1987. Evaluation of herbicides for early season conifer release. Proceedings, Western Society of Weed Science. 40: 119-128. [38437]
45. Conard, Susan G.; Emmingham, W. H. 1984. Herbicides for forest brush control in southwestern Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University, College of Forestry. 7 p. [10817]
75. Gratkowski, H. 1975. Silvicultural use of herbicides in Pacific Northwest forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-37. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 44 p. [10998]
121. Kelpsas, Bruce R.; White, Diane E. 1986. Conifer tolerance and shrub response to triclopyr, 2,4-D and clopyralid. Proceedings, Western Society of Weed Science. 39: 124-125. [38438]
144. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1991. Grazing with sheep: effect on pine seedlings, shrubs, forbs, and grasses. In: Garrett, H. E., ed. Proceedings, 2nd conference on agroforestry in North America; 1991 August 18-21; Springfield, MO. Columbia, MO: University of Missouri, The School of Natural Resources: 221-231. [21262]
145. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1993. Feasibility of alternatives to herbicides in young conifer plantations in California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 23: 2015-2022. [41929]
147. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1996. Development of a mixed shrub-tanoak-Douglas-fir community in a treated and untreated condition. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-225. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 16 p. [27731]
148. McDonald, Philip M.; Fiddler, Gary O. 1997. Treatment duration and time since disturbance affect vegetation development in a young California red fir plantation. Res. Pap. PSW-RP-233. Albany, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Research Station. 14 p. [28933]
152. Miller, D. G., III. 1998. Life history, ecology and communal gall occupation in the manzanita leaf-gall aphid, Tamalia coweni (Cockerell) (Homoptera: Aphididae). Journal of Natural History. 32(3): 351-366. [65751]
221. Washington State Cooperative Extension Service. 1982. Herbicides in forestry. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, College of Agriculture, Cooperative Extension Service. 13 p. [7873]
40. Cole, E. C.; Newton, M. 1990. Broadcast spraying of snowbrush ceanothus and greenleaf manzanita. In: Progress report--Western Society of Weed Science; Notes from a meeting held 1990 March 13-15; Reno, NV. [Place of publication unknown]: Western Society of Weed Science: 122-125. [35509]

Source:

License:

Cultivars, improved and selected materials (and area of origin)

'Altura' Greenleaf Manzanita was released in 1989 by the NRCS Plant Materials Center in Lockeford, California. This is a native, erect to semi-erect, evergreen shrub, 3-6 feet high and about 3-5 feet wide. It was collected from native plants in August and September of 1972 at South Lake Tahoe, California and was developed as a critical area stabilization plant for dry, rocky slopes and droughty, well-drained soils. It is slow to establish ground cover, but 3-4 year old plants provide good cover and erosion control. Stems root at nodes when put in contact with the ground by heavy snows. It seems to be useful for environmental enhancement and foundation plantings around mountain homes. It grows well in the Tahoe Basin, but is adapted to elevations down to 2000 feet where precipitation is adequate.

Contact your local Natural Resources Conservation Service (formerly Soil Conservation Service) office for more information. Look in the phone book under ”United States Government”. The Natural Resources Conservation Service will be listed under the subheading “Department of Agriculture.”

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Management

Under natural conditions, no special management is required to maintain established manzanitas. Either scarified seeds or well-rooted container plants may be used to revegetate cleared sites. In the urban landscape, several horticultural techniques should be used to ensure healthy plants. All manzanitas should be planted higher than the surrounding soil to prevent crown rot, which can result from excessive water and soil moisture, especially during the summer. Overhead watering should also be avoided because it tends to encourage fungal diseases (e.g., Botryosphaeria) that cause branch die-back and leaf spot. Manzanitas are also susceptible to gall-producing aphids (Tamalia), which cause young leaves to curl and cease growth.

Periodic watering every 4-6 weeks will keep foliage healthy without weakening plants. Mulching is desirable to control weeds, retain soil moisture, and reduce the need for irrigation. Rock mulches have proven more successful than organic mulches. Pruning should be avoided and used only to remove dead wood and diseased branches.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Santa Barbara Botanic Garden & USDA NRCS National Plant Data Center

Benefits

Uses

The fruits of greenleaf manzanita are utilized by bear, deer, other small mammals, and a wide array of birds. Infusions of the leaves and bark were used by some native Americans to treat cuts and burns. The crooked wood of central stems and lower branches are used in several cottage industries, including lamp stands and other decorative wood crafts.

Source: