Chamerion angustifolium

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Comprehensive Description

General Description

Herbs perennial, erect, forming large clones by vigorous soboles from a woody caudex or by long lateral roots. Stems 20-130 cm tall, subglabrous. Leaves subsessile; basal leaf blade scalelike below ground, lanceolate-oblong to obovate, 0.5-2 cm; cauline blade green, linear-lanceolate or narrowly lanceolate, 7-14 cm long, 0.7-1.3 cm wide, glabrous throughout, lateral veins 10-25 per side, often indistinct but submarginal vein distinct, base obtuse to cuneate, margin subentire to obscurely denticulate, somewhat revolute. Bracts much smaller than cauline leaves. Inflorescence subglabrous. Flowers nodding in bud, suberect at anthesis. Sepals 6-15 mm long, 1.5-3 mm wide. Petals pale pink to purple or rarely white, 9-15 mm long, 3-9 mm wide. Ovary 0.6-2.5 cm, densely canescent; style 8-16 mm, lower part villous. Capsules 4-8 cm, densely appressed-canescent; pedicels 0.5-1.9 cm. Seeds 0.9-1 mm long, 0.3-0.45 mm wide, irregularly reticulate, with indistinct chalazal collar; coma dingy or white, 1-1.7 cm, not easily detaching.

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Wen, Jun

Distribution

Occurrence in North America

     AK AZ CA CO CT DE ID IL IN IA
     KS ME MD MA MI MN MT NE NV NH
     NJ NM NY NC ND OH OH OR PA RI
     SD TN UT VT VA WA WV WI WY AB
     BC LB MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ
     SK YT MEXICO

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Distribution

Fireweed is a circumboreal native species and is found in all of the
Canadian provinces [72,82,127,188]. It occurs throughout the United
States except in the southeastern states and Texas [83,94,113,175,191].

References:

72. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]
82. Gleason, H. A.; Cronquist, A. 1963. Manual of vascular plants of northeastern United States and adjacent Canada. Princeton, NJ: D. Van Nostrand Company, Inc. 810 p. [7065]
83. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
94. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1961. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 3: Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 614 p. [1167]
113. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
127. Lakela, O. 1965. A flora of northeastern Minnesota. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota Press. 541 p. [18142]
175. Radford, Albert E.; Ahles, Harry E.; Bell, C. Ritchie. 1968. Manual of the vascular flora of the Carolinas. Chapel Hill, NC: The University of North Carolina Press. 1183 p. [7606]
188. Scoggan, H. J. 1978. The flora of Canada. Ottawa, Canada: National Museums of Canada. (4 volumes). [18143]
191. Seymour, Frank Conkling. 1982. The flora of New England. 2d ed. Phytologia Memoirs 5. Plainfield, NJ: Harold N. Moldenke and Alma L. Moldenke. 611 p. [7604]

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Regional Distribution in the Western United States

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

    1 Northern Pacific Border
    2 Cascade Mountains
    3 Southern Pacific Border
    4 Sierra Mountains
    5 Columbia Plateau
    6 Upper Basin and Range
    7 Lower Basin and Range
    8 Northern Rocky Mountains
    9 Middle Rocky Mountains
   10 Wyoming Basin
   11 Southern Rocky Mountains
   12 Colorado Plateau
   13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
   14 Great Plains
   15 Black Hills Uplift
   16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

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Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Epilobium angustifolium var. macrophyllum (Hausskn.) Fernald:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Fernald, M. 1950. Manual (ed. 8) i–lxiv, 1–1632. American Book Co., New York.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Holub:
Afghanistan (Asia)
Burma (Asia)
Bhutan (Asia)
India (Asia)
Japan (Asia)
Mongolia (Asia)
Nepal (Asia)
Pakistan (Asia)
Russian Federation (Asia)
South Korea (Asia)
China (Asia)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Flora of China Editorial Committee. 2007. Fl. China 13: 1–548. Science Press & Missouri Botanical Garden Press, Beijing & St. Louis.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Chamaenerion angustifolium (L.) Scop.:
Canada (North America)
Greenland (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Böcher, T. W., K. Holmen & K. Jacobsen. 1968. Fl. Greenland (ed. 2) 312 pp.
Small, J. K. 1933. Man. S.E. Fl. i–xxii, 1–1554. Published by the Author, New York.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Distribution

Gansu, Guizhou, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Henan, Hubei, Jiangxi, Jilin, Liaoning, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shaanxi, Shandong, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Xizang, Yunnan [Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Korea, Mongolia, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia; N Africa, C, N, and SW Asia, Europe, North America].

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA

Distribution

Chamerion angustifolium is occurring in Gansu, Hebei, Heilongjiang, Jilin, Nei Mongol, Ningxia, Qinghai, Shanxi, Sichuan, Xinjiang, Xizang, Yunnan of China, Afghanistan, Bhutan, India, Japan, Korea, Myanmar, Nepal, Pakistan, Russia; C, N, and SW Asia, Europe, North America.

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

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Wen, Jun

Morphology

Description

More info for the terms: capsule, forb

Fireweed is a robust native perennial forb. It has fine roots and
rhizomes that extend down vertically to 17.7 inches (45 cm) from the
plant, with most growing between 0 and 5.9 inches (0-15 cm) deep
[103,154,161]. The single stems are from 3 to 9 feet (1-2.7 m) tall and
may be very leafy [72,104]. Leaves are 2.8 to 5.9 inches (7-15 cm) long
[72]. One plant may have 15 or more flowers [29]. Each flower produces
a capsule with 300 to 500 seeds [72,196]. Seeds have a tuft of long
hairs on one end [196].

References:

29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
72. Fernald, Merritt Lyndon. 1950. Gray's manual of botany. [Corrections supplied by R. C. Rollins]
103. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Weed control for forest productivity in the interior West; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]
104. Ingram, Douglas C. 1931. Vegetative changes and grazing use on Douglas-fir cut-over land. Journal of Agricultural Research. 43(5): 387-417. [8877]
154. Messier, Christian; Kimmins, James P. 1991. Above- & below-ground vegetation recovery in recently clearcut & burned sites dominated by Gaultheria shallon in coastal British Columbia. Forest Ecology and Management. 46(3-4): 275-294. [17206]
161. Moss, E. H. 1936. The ecology of Epilobium angustifolium with particular reference to rings of periderm in the wood. American Journal of Botany. 23: 114-120. [12806]
196. Solbreck, Crister; Andersson, David. 1987. Vertical distribution of fireweed, Epilobium augustifolium, seeds in the air. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 2177-2178. [6619]

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Description

Herbs perennial, erect, forming large clones by vigorous soboles from a woody caudex or by long lateral roots. Stems 20-200 cm tall, glabrous to densely strigillose especially on inflorescence. Leaves sessile or petioles to 7 mm; basal leaf blade scalelike below ground, lanceolate-oblong to obovate, 0.5-2 cm; cauline blade green, linear to lanceolate, 3-23 × 0.3-3.4 cm, glabrous throughout or abaxially strigillose on midvein, lateral veins 10-25 per side, confluent to submarginal vein, base obtuse or cuneate to attenuate, margin entire or scarcely denticulate, apex attenuate-acute. Bracts much smaller than cauline leaves. Inflorescence glabrous or strigillose. Flowers nodding in bud, suberect at anthesis. Sepals 6-19 × 1.5-3 mm. Petals pale pink to purple or rarely white, 9-25 × 3-15 mm. Ovary 0.6-2.5 cm, densely canescent; style 8-16 mm, lower part villous. Capsules 4-9.5 cm, densely appressed-canescent; pedicels 0.5-3 cm. Seeds 0.9-1.3 × 0.3-0.45 mm, irregularly reticulate, with indistinct chalazal collar; coma dingy or white, 1-1.7 cm, not easily detaching.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA

Diagnostic Description

Chamerion angustifolium subsp. angustifolium is close relative of Chamerion angustifolium subsp. circumvagum, but differs from the latter in its leaves abaxially glabrous on midvein, 7-14 × 0.7-1.3 cm (vs. pubescent on midvein, 9-23 × 1.5-3.4), base obtuse or subrounded (vs. cuneate), margin subentire (vs. denticulate), subsessile (vs. petioles 2-7 mm), stems subglabrous (vs. strigillose at least above), petals 9-15 × 3-9 mm (vs. 14-25 × 7-15 mm).

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Wen, Jun

Habitat

Habitat characteristics

More info for the terms: frequency, shrubs, swamp, tundra

Fireweed tolerates a wide range of site and soil conditions, but it most
commonly occurs on disturbed ground. It is abundant in coniferous
forests, mixed forests, aspen parklands, grasslands, sylvotundra (i.e.,
area between treeless tundra and circumpolar coniferous forest), and
muskegs [54,134,144,163,210]. Fireweed grows on disturbed areas such as
cut-over or burned forests and swamps, avalanche areas, recently
deglaciated areas, and riverbars [22,101,153,208]. Additional disturbed
sites are highway and railroad rights-of-way, waste places, and old
fields [94,188].

In North America, fireweed occurs in maritime to strongly continental
climates with short, warm summers and long, cold winters [28,229].
Annual precipitation averages between 13 inches (330 mm) on the
north-central edge of its range and 134.7 inches (3,420 mm) on the west
coastal edge [4,28].

Fireweed occurs on soils that vary from thin layers above permafrost in
the subarctic regions to deep loams in the western United States [136].
Soil development ranges from clays and clayey loams to sandy loams to
unweathered parent material [4,73]. Organic matter may be low in
fireweed soils or very high and peaty [227]. Low soil pH may affect
plant fertility. Fireweed grown in soil with pH 3.5 produced 80 percent
fewer seeds than plants grown in soil with pH 5.0 [29]. Fireweed may
occur in neutral soils [48,208]. Northern soils in which fireweed
occurs may be frozen 4 to 5 months or longer [29].

Fireweed occurs on flat to rolling topography or moderate to steep
slopes [12]. It is found from sea level to high alpine elevations
[89,185]. Mueggler [162] found no significant (p>0.05) effect of aspect
on the frequency of fireweed in burned areas in Idaho.

Fireweed has numerous common associates. Trees associated with fireweed
include Gambel oak (Quercus gambelii), bur oak (Q. macrocarpa),
American hazel (Corylus americana), Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis
nootkatensis), and swamp black gum (Nyssa biflora) [22,53,69,153].

Common shrubs found with fireweed are snowbrush (Ceanothus velutinus),
snowberry (Symphoricarpos oreophilus), thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus),
salmonberry (Rubus spectabilis), prickly rose (Rosa acicularis), hoary
willow (Salix candida), black twinberry (Lonicera involucrata), and
common juniper (Juniperus communis) [123,130,134,136,178,229].

Other postdisturbance species associated with fireweed are bluejoint
reedgrass (Calamagrostis canadensis), pinegrass (C. rubescens), purple
reedgrass (C. purpurascens), and Wyoming wildrye (Leymus flavescens)
[65,97,136,190,227]. In moister grasslands, fireweed occurs with sedges
(Carex spp.) and sailorcaps shootingstar (Dodecatheon conjugens) [210].
Pteridophyte associates are western swordfern (Polystichum minutum),
brackenfern (Pteridium aquilinum), and woodland horsetail (Equisetum
sylvaticum) [21,229]. Important liverwort and moss associates are
Marchantia polymorpha and Ceratodon purpureus [226]. (Also see
Distribution and Association)

References:

4. Alaback, Paul B.; Herman, F. R. 1988. Long-term response of understory vegetation to stand density in Picea-Tsuga forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 18: 1522-1530. [6227]
12. Argus, George W. 1966. Botanical investigations in northeastern Saskatchewan: the subarctic Patterson-Hasbala Lakes region. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 80(3): 119-143. [8406]
21. Beasleigh, W. J.; Yarranton, G. A. 1974. Ecological strategy and tactics of Equisetum sylvaticum during a postfire succession. Canadian Journal of Botany. 52: 2299-2318. [9965]
22. Beaven, George Francis; Oosting, Henry J. 1939. Pocomoke Swamp: a study of a cypress swamp on the eastern shore of Maryland. Bulletin of the Torrey Botanical Club. 66: 376-389. [14507]
28. Breitung, August J. 1954. A botanical survey of the Cypress Hills. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 68: 55-92. [6262]
29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
48. Cragg, J. B.; Carter, Alan; Leischner, Clara; [and others]
53. Crowther, Evan G.; Harper, K. T. 1965. Vegetational and edaphic characteristics associated with aspen "strips" in Big Cottonwood Canyon. Utah Academy Proceedings. 42(II): 222-230. [15663]
54. Curtis, Alan B. 1986. Camas Swale Research Natural Area. Supplement No. 21. In: Franklin, Jerry F.; Hall, Frederick C.; Dyrness, C. T.; Maser, Chris. Federal research natural areas in Oregon and Washington: A guidebook for scientists and educators. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest and Range Experiment Station. 18 p. [226]
65. Edwards, M. E.; Armbruster, W. S. 1989. A tundra-steppe transition on Kathul Mountain, Alaska, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research. 21(3): 296-304. [9673]
69. Ewing, J. 1924. Plant successions of the brush-prairie in north-western Minnesota. Journal of Ecology. 12: 238-266. [11122]
73. Foiles, Marvin W.; Curtis, James D. 1965. Natural regeneration of ponderosa pine on scarified group cuttings in central Idaho. Journal of Forestry. 63(7): 530-535. [15783]
89. Harper, K. T.; Freeman, D. Carl; Ostler, W. Kent; Klikoff, Lionel G. 1978. The flora of Great Basin mountain ranges: diversity, sources, and dispersal ecology. In: Harper, Kimball T.; Reveal, F. L., eds. Intermountain biogeography: a symposium. Great Basin Naturalist Memoirs No. 2. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University: 81-103. [15100]
94. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1961. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 3: Saxifragaceae to Ericaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 614 p. [1167]
97. Hogg, E. H.; Lieffers, V. J. 1991. Seasonal changes in shoot regrowth potential in Calamagrostis canadensis. Oecologia. 85(4): 596-602. [14871]
101. Hulten, Eric. 1968. Flora of Alaska and neighboring territories. Stanford, CA: Stanford University Press. 1008 p. [13403]
123. Krebill, R. G. 1972. Mortality of aspen on the Gros Ventre elk winter range. Res. Pap. INT-129. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 16 p. [16089]
130. LePage, P.; Pollack, J. C.; Coates, K. D. 1991. Chemical and manual control of thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) in northwestern British Columbia: a rate and timing trial. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 6(4): 99-102. [16224]
134. Lewis, Francis J.; Dowding, E. S. 1926. The vegetation and retrogressive changes of peat areas ("muskegs") in central Alberta. Journal of Ecology. 14: 317-341. [12740]
136. Lopushinsky, W.; Klock, G. O. 1990. Soil water use by Ceanothus velutinus and two grasses. Res. Note PNW-RN-496. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 9 p. [13087]
144. Maini, J. S. 1966. Pytoecological study of sylvotundra at Small Tree Lake, N.W.T. Arctic. 19: 220-243. [8259]
153. Meehan, William R. 1974. The forest ecosystem of southeast Alaska: 4. Wildlife habitats. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-16. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 32 p. [13479]
162. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
163. Mueggler, W. F. 1985. Vegetation associations. In: DeByle, Norbert V.; Winokur, Robert P., eds. Aspen: ecology and management in the western United States. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-119. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 45-55. [11907]
178. Rejmanek, Marcel; Rosen, Ejvind. 1988. The eff. of colonizing shrubs (Juniperus communis &Potentilla fructicosa on species richness in the grasslands of Stora Alvaret, Oland (Sweden). Acta phytogeographica suecica. 76: 67-72. [9745]
185. Schaack, Clark G. 1983. The alpine vascular flora of Arizona. Madrono. 30(4): 79-88. [2069]
188. Scoggan, H. J. 1978. The flora of Canada. Ottawa, Canada: National Museums of Canada. (4 volumes). [18143]
190. Seip, Dale R.; Bunnell, Fred L. 1985. Species composition and herbage production of mountain rangelands in northern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Botany. 63: 2077-2080. [2104]
208. Taylor, R. F. 1932. The successional trend and its relation to second-growth forests in southeastern Alaska. Ecology. 13(4): 381-391. [10007]
210. Thompson, Larry S.; Kuijt, Job. 1976. Montane and subalpine plants of the Sweetgrass Hills, Montana and their relation to early postglacial environments on the northern Great Plains. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 90(4): 432-448. [7894]
226. Yarie, J.; Viereck, L.; Van Cleve, K.; Dryness, C. T. 1988. The chronosequence as an aid to understanding the long-term conse- quences of management activities. In: Dyck, W. J.; Mees, C. A, eds. Research Strategies for Long-term Productivity. Proceedings, IEA/BE A3 Workshop; [Date of conference unknown]
227. Zasada, J. 1986. Natural regeneration of trees and tall shrubs on forest sites in interior Alaska. In: Van Cleve, K.; Chapin, F. S., III; Flanagan, P. W.; [and others]
229. Zinke, Paul J. 1977. The redwood forest and associated north coast forests. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley and Sons: 679-698. [7212]

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Key Plant Community Associations

More info for the terms: forb, taiga

Fireweed is a dominant species in many diverse riparian and upland seral
community types. It is not useful for vegetation classification in some
areas because it is abundant in a wide variety of stands [128].
Fireweed is an indicator species in ruderal vegetation types in
Minnesota, Alaska, British Columbia, and Quebec [56,88,120,122].
Fireweed is a dominant species and is used in the following
classifications:

(1) Classification of the riparian vegetation of the montane and
     subalpine zones in western Colorado [16]
(2) Phytogeographia Laurentiana. II. The principal plant associations
     of the Saint Lawrence Valley [56]
(3) Vegetation of the Big Horn Mountains, Wyoming, in relation to
     substrate and climate [59]
(4) Montane zone vegetation of the Alsek River region, southwestern
     Yukon [61]
(5) Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities
     after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska [76]
(6) Subalpine forb community types of the Bridger-Teton National
     Forest, Wyoming [85]
(7) Vegetation types in northwestern Alaska and comparisons with
     communities in other Arctic regions [88]
(8) Vegetation relationships among some seral ecosystems in
     southwestern British Columbia [122]
(9) Ecosystem classification and interpretation of the sub-boreal
     spruce zone, Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia [173]

References:

16. Baker, William L. 1989. Classification of the riparian vegetation of the montane and subalpine zones in western Colorado. Great Basin Naturalist. 49(2): 214-228. [7985]
56. Dansereau, Pierre. 1959. The principal plant associations of the Saint Lawrence Valley. No. 75. Montreal, Canada: Contrib. Inst. Bot. Univ. Montreal. 147 p. [8925]
59. Despain, Don G. 1973. Vegetation of the Big Horn Mountains, Wyoming, in relation to substrate and climate. Ecological Monographs. 43(3): 329-355. [789]
61. Douglas, George W. 1974. Montane zone vegetation of the Alsek River region, southwestern Yukon. Canadian Journal of Botany. 52: 2505-2532. [17283]
76. Foote, M. Joan. 1983. Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-307. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 108 p. [7080]
85. Gregory, Shari. 1983. Subalpine forb community types of the Bridger-Teton National Forest, Wyoming. Final Report. U.S. Forest Service Cooperative Education Agreement: Contract OM 40-8555-3-115. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 100 p. [1040]
88. Hanson, Herbert C. 1953. Vegetation types in northwestern Alaska and comparisons with communities in other arctic regions. Ecology. 34(1): 111-140. [9781]
120. Kittredge, Joseph, Jr. 1938. The interrelations of habitat, growth rate, and associated vegetation in the aspen community of Minnesota and Wisconsin. Ecological Monographs. 8(2): 152-246. [10356]
122. Klinka, K.; Scagel, A. M.; Courtin, P. J. 1985. Vegetation relationships among some seral ecosystems in southwestern British Columbia. Canadian Journal of Forestry. 15: 561-569. [5985]
128. La Roi, George H. 1967. Ecological studies in the boreal spruce-fir forests of the North American taiga. I. Analysis of the vascular flora. Ecological Monographs. 37(3): 229-253. [8864]
173. Pojar, J.; Trowbridge, R.; Coates, D. 1984. Ecosystem classification and interpretation of the sub-boreal spruce zone, Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. Land Management Report No. 17. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 319 p. [6929]

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Habitat: Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

     1 Jack pine
     5 Balsam fir
    12 Black spruce
    13 Black spruce - tamarack
    16 Aspen
    18 Paper birch
    20 White pine - northern red oak - red maple
    55 Northern red oak
    76 Shortleaf pine - oak
   102 Baldcypress - tupelo
   108 Red maple
   201 White spruce
   202 White spruce - paper birch
   203 Balsam poplar
   204 Black spruce
   205 Mountain hemlock
   206 Engelmann spruce - subalpine fir
   210 Interior Douglas-fir
   212 Western larch
   213 Grand fir
   216 Blue spruce
   217 Aspen
   218 Lodgepole pine
   223 Sitka spruce
   224 Western hemlock
   225 Western hemlock - Sitka spruce
   227 Western redcedar - western hemlock
   229 Pacific Douglas-fir
   230 Douglas-fir - western hemlock
   232 Redwood
   243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer
   251 White spruce - aspen
   252 Paper birch
   253 Black spruce - white spruce
   254 Black spruce - paper birch
   256 California mixed subalpine

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Habitat: Plant Associations

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

   K001 Spruce - cedar - hemlock forest
   K002 Cedar - hemlock - Douglas-fir forest
   K003 Silver fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K004 Fir - hemlock forest
   K005 Mixed conifer forest
   K006 Redwood forest
   K008 Lodgepole pine - subalpine forest
   K010 Ponderosa shrub forest
   K011 Western ponderosa forest
   K012 Douglas-fir forest
   K013 Cedar - hemlock - pine forest
   K014 Grand fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K015 Western spruce - fir forest
   K017 Black Hills pine forest
   K018 Pine - Douglas-fir forest
   K019 Arizona pine forest
   K020 Spruce - fir - Douglas-fir forest
   K021 Southwestern spruce - fir forest
   K029 California mixed evergreen forest
   K093 Great Lakes spruce - fir forest
   K095 Great Lakes pine forest
   K096 Northeastern spruce - fir forest
   K110 Northeastern oak - pine forest
   K111 Oak - hickory - pine forest
   K112 Southern mixed forest

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Habitat: Ecosystem

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

   FRES10 White - red - jack pine
   FRES11 Spruce - fir
   FRES13 Loblolly - shortleaf pine
   FRES14 Oak - pine
   FRES18 Maple - beech - birch
   FRES19 Aspen - birch
   FRES20 Douglas-fir
   FRES21 Ponderosa pine
   FRES22 Western white pine
   FRES23 Fir - spruce
   FRES24 Hemlock - Sitka spruce
   FRES25 Larch
   FRES26 Lodgepole pine
   FRES27 Redwood
   FRES44 Alpine

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Habitat

Moist often disturbed places; near sea level to 4700 m.

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Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO, 63110 USA

Habitat

Growing in moist often disturbed places in mountains; 500-4700 m.

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Rights Holder:

Wen, Jun

Associations

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Allophylaria macrospora is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 9-10

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, solitary or grouped, clypeate perithecium of Anthostomella clypeoides is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 10-5

Foodplant / pathogen
Armillaria mellea s.l. infects and damages Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / open feeder
adult of Bromius obscurus grazes on live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 5-10
Other: major host/prey

In Great Britain and/or Ireland:
Foodplant / feeds on
pycnidium of Conothyrium coelomycetous anamorph of Coniothyrium conoideum feeds on Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Coremiella dematiaceous anamorph of Coremiella cubispora is saprobic on Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 7-10

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Crepidotus cesatii is saprobic on decayed, dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pycnidium of Phomopsis coelomycetous anamorph of Diaporthe epilobii is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 5

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed perithecium of Diaporthe pardalota is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 1-8

Foodplant / saprobe
acervulus of Hainesia coelomycetous anamorph of Discohainesia oenotherae is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, in small groups, weakly clypeate perithecium of Discostroma tostum is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 3-7

Foodplant / saprobe
hypophyllous fruitbody of Efibulobasidium albescens is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Endoperplexa subfarinacea is saprobic on dead, standing stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
solitary or clustered apothecium of Hyalinia dilutella is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 9-10

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Hymenoscyphus repandus is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 5-10

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lachnum clavigerum is saprobic on Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
long stalked apothecium of Lachnum virgineum is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 2-8

Foodplant / saprobe
apothecium of Lasiobelonium nazarovae is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
superficial perithecium of Lasiosphaeria phyllophila is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 11-4

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Lentinellus tridentinus is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / sap sucker
Macrosiphum rosae sucks sap of live Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
stalked apothecium of Moellerodiscus tenuistipes is saprobic on dead, fallen, rotting leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / saprobe
thyriothecium of Morenoina epilobii is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 7

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Mycena adscendens is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
sessile sporodochium of Myrothecium dematiaceous anamorph of Myrothecium carmichaelii is saprobic on dead leaf of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
short-stalked apothecium of Pezizella discreta is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 10-11

Foodplant / saprobe
thinly scattered apothecium of Pezizella punctoidea is saprobic on dead leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 7-12

Foodplant / spot causer
hypophyllous pseudostroma of Ramularia anamorph of Phaeoramularia punctiformis causes spots on live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 8-9

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed pseudothecium of Pleospora epilobii is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 3

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pleurophragmium dematiaceous anamorph of Pleurophragmium parvisporum is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pseudospiropes dematiaceous anamorph of Pseudospiropes rousselianus is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Pseudospiropes dematiaceous anamorph of Pseudospiropes subuliferus is saprobic on dead stem (near base) of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / pathogen
hypophyllous pycnium of Puccinia pulverulenta infects and damages live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / spot causer
uredium of Pucciniastrum epilobii causes spots on live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 8-10
Other: major host/prey

Foodplant / parasite
Pucciniastrum fustulum parasitises Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
erumpent apothecium of Pyrenopeziza chamaenerii is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 6-8

Foodplant / spot causer
Ramularia anamorph of Ramularia punctiformis causes spots on live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
scattered, subepidermal, black pycnidium of Rhabdospora coelomycetous anamorph of Rhabdospora pleosporoides is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 1-3

Foodplant / saprobe
solitary or in small groups apothecium of Rutstroemia hercynica is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 7-10

Foodplant / parasite
Sphaerotheca epilobii parasitises live Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 8-10

Foodplant / saprobe
immersed, sometimes in rows perithecium of Sydowiella fenestrans is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 4-7

Foodplant / saprobe
colony of Trichoderma dematiaceous anamorph of Trichoderma koningii is saprobic on dead stem of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
effuse colony of Triposporium dematiaceous anamorph of Triposporium elegans is saprobic on dead, often grey or purple stained stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 1-12

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Typhula crassipes is saprobic on dead, fallen, decayed leaf of Chamerion angustifolium

Foodplant / saprobe
fruitbody of Typhula todei is saprobic on dead, decaying stem of Chamerion angustifolium
Other: unusual host/prey

Foodplant / spot causer
epiphyllous, clustered pseudothecium of Venturia maculiformis causes spots on live leaf of Chamerion angustifolium
Remarks: season: 5-9

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Rights Holder:

BioImages

General Ecology

Fire Management Considerations

More info for the terms: cover, forb, forbs, frequency, fuel, prescribed fire, shrubs, tree

In white spruce-aspen stands in Alberta, prescribed fire was not
effective for conifer regeneration after logging [119]. Heavy postfire
sprouting by aspen and fireweed inhibited white spruce seedling
establishment. Light surface fires stimulated fireweed growth to 100
pounds per acre (111.9 kg/ha) within 3 months.

Fireweed and other forbs produced heavy cover following a severe fire in
Minnesota that inhibited jack pine growth [1]. Jack pine seedlings were
thin, light colored, and stunted. Despite detrimental effects of
shading tree seedlings, herbaceous cover may provide higher microsite
humidity and suppress shrubs [2,151].

Fireweed effectively uptakes and recycles large amounts of nutrients
from burned-over areas [166]. Fireweed foliage had significantly
(p less than 0.05) higher levels of nutrients (potassium, magnesium, manganese,
phosphates, and zinc) on burned areas compared to unburned controls
[197].

Fire protection managers should consider using fireweed when they
require a species with low flammability rating (for rating factors see
Fire Ecology or Adaptations) [223]. Fireweed is included in the
narrow-leaved forb class for establishing fuel weights [31].

Following logging, slash may be bulldozed into piles. Bulldozing
scarifies the soil, and slash piles burn very hot; fireweed readily
established in these open spots [14,218,222]. Fireweed had
significantly (p less than 0.05) higher frequency of occurrence on logged and
broadcast burned areas than on unburned areas [162]. Dense fireweed
stands protected slash from sun and wind during the fifth year after
cutting, reducing the probable rate of fire spread compared to the first
summer after cutting [159]. However, fireweed increases the rate of
fire spread with dead leaves and stems.

Burning, mechanical (e.g., tree cutting), biological (e.g., intense
sheep grazing), and chemical controls were applied to enhance big
huckleberry (Vaccinium membranaceum) communities on Mount Adams,
Washington. These treatments had no significant (p>0.05) effect on
fireweed abundance during postdisturbance years 1 and 2 [156]. Fireweed
was significantly more abundant on burned plots postdisturbance year 5.
No other treatments had a significant (p>0.05) effect on fireweed
abundance after 5 years.

In Alberta, forage species, such as alfalfa (Medicago sativa) and
crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum cv. Fairway) were seeded into
burned areas [5]. Fireweed successfully invaded the plantings and was
still present after five years. Grasses aerially seeded on burns may
compete and displace fireweed. In Montana, Pattee Canyon was aerially
seeded with commercial grasses following a fire. Fireweed had low cover
values 10 years later [211]. Toth [211] suggested that orchardgrass
(Dactylis glomerata) had displaced fireweed.

References:

1. Ahlgren, Clifford E. 1959. Some effects of fire on forest reproduction in northeastern Minnesota. Journal of Forestry. 57: 194-200. [208]
2. Ahlgren, Clifford E. 1970. Some effects of prescribed burning on jack pine reproduction in northeastern Minnesota. Misc. Rep. 94, Forestry Series 5-1970. Minneapolis, MN: University of Minnesota, Agricultural Experiment Station. 14 p. [7285]
5. Anderson, C. H.; Elliott, C. R. 1957. Studies on the establishment of cultivated grasses and legumes on burned-over land in northern Canada. Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 37: 97-101. [12821]
119. Kiil, A. D. 1970. Effects of spring burning on vegetation in old partially cut spruce-aspen stands in east-central Alberta. Information Report A-X-33. Edmonton, AB: Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry, Forest Research Laboratory. 12 p. [12997]
151. McRae, D. J. 1979. Prescribed burning in jack pine logging slash: a review. Report 0-X-289. Sault Ste. Marie, ON: Canadian Forestry Service, Great Lakes Forest Research Centre. 57 p. [7290]
162. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
166. Newton, M.; Comeau, P. G. 1990. Control of competing vegetation. In: Lavender, D. P.; Parish, R.; Johnson, C. M.; [and others]
211. Toth, Barbara L. 1991. Factors affecting conifer regeneration and community structure after a wildfire in western Montana. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 124 p. Thesis. [14425]
223. Wein, Ross W. 1975. Arctic tundra fires--ecological consequences. In: Proceedings, circumpolar conference on northern ecology; [Date unknown]
14. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert E. 1985. Forest succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-177. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74 p. [349]
31. Brown, James K.; Marsden, Michael A. 1976. Estimating fuel weights of grasses, forbs, and small woody plants. Res. Note INT-210. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest & Range Experiment Station. 11 p. [5030]
156. Minore, Don; Smart, Alan W.; Dubrasich, Michael E. 1979. Huckleberry ecology and management research in the Pacific Northwest. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-93. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 50 p. [6336]
159. Morris, William G. 1958. Influence of slash burning on regeneration, other plant cover, and fire hazard in the Douglas-fir region (A progress report). Res. Pap. PNW-29. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 49 p. [4803]
197. Stark, Nellie M. 1977. Fire and nutrient cycling in a Douglas-fir/larch forest. Ecology. 58: 16-30. [8618]
218. Vogl, Richard J.; Ryder, Calvin. 1969. Effects of slash burning on conifer reproduction in Montana's Mission Range. Northwest Science. 43(3): 135-147. [8546]
222. Weaver, Harold. 1951. Observed effects of prescribed burning on perennial grasses in the ponderosa pine forests. Journal of Forestry. 49(4): 267-271. [4618]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: fire use, mixed-severity fire, prescribed fire, restoration

Lyon's Research Paper, Hamilton's Research Papers
(Hamilton 2006a, Hamilton 2006b), and the following Research Project Summaries
provide information on prescribed fire use and postfire response of many
plant species, including fireweed:

Understory recovery after burning and reburning quaking aspen stands in
central Alberta

Seasonal fires in Saskatchewan rough fescue prairie

Understory recovery after low- and high-intensity fires in northern
Idaho ponderosa pine forests

Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir
forests of western Montana

Vegetation recovery following a mixed-severity fire in aspen groves of
western Wyoming

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: cover, density, forbs, frequency, series, severity, shrub, taiga

Fireweed is an important off-site colonizer after fire [203,204].
Often, it is not present on a site before a fire but establishes during
the first postfire year [8,9,38,215]. Seedlings are initially present
in low amounts [155,174]. Colony growth continues via rhizome
expansion; some seedlings continue to establish as mineral soil
microsites open.

Initial establishment of fireweed seedlings usually exceeds expectations
of frequency based upon on-site prefire vegetation [141]. Following a
fire in eastern Siberian taiga, fireweed regenerated, and 79.5 percent
of fireweed individuals present sprouted from seed [212].

Fireweed is usually an increaser following fire [36,78,193,205]. Within
3 postfire months, fireweed was present at 3 percent frequency and 1
percent cover in central Alberta [7]. Fireweed slowly increases in
abundance, often with 100 percent frequency and 30 percent or more
cover, to peak on average postfire years 5 [18,39,51,63,80,155,170]. In
the Cascade Range, fireweed had significantly (p less than 0.05) different amounts
of cover at postfire years 3 to 5, but from years 11 to 16, there was no
significant (p>0.05) change in cover between burned and unburned areas
[160]. However, at 11 postfire years, fireweed was present at 91
percent frequency on upland sites in northwestern Oregon [165]. It was
not in the surrounding Douglas-fir-western hemlock (Tsuga heterophylla)
stand. Fireweed was still one of the principal cover species 10 to 12
postfire years on severe fire sites in northern Idaho and western
Montana [45,140,147,203]. In other studies, the highest frequency for
fireweed was reached 17 to 20 years after fire [45,142,162].

Fireweed production may vary with severity of fire. Severe fires remove
organic soil layers, exposing mineral soil which is an excellent seedbed
for fireweed. Therefore, cover and density are greatest on severely
burned areas because of good seedling establishment [13,17,19,20,43].
Three years following an August fire, fireweed production steadily
increased from 423.8 air dried pounds per acre (475 kg/ha) on
low-severity burns to 1,478.4 air dried pounds per acre (1,657 hg/ha) on
high-severity burns [20]. However, fireweed was more dense 1 year after
fire in Wyoming on moderate-severity burns compared to high-severity
burns [6].

Initially, fireweed decreased after fire from prefire levels of cover
(20 percent) in a Douglas-fir stand in south-central Idaho [139].
However, by postfire year 3, cover had doubled the amount present
prefire. Postfire years 5 to 8, fireweed cover peaked at 84 to 88
percent [139]. Fireweed was expected to decline over the next 20 years
to prefire levels.

Fireweed is one of the most abundant forbs on most burned areas of
interior Alaska [138]. A series of severe fires in Alaska will convert
any forest type into a semipermanent herbaceous or shrub community [33].
The herbaceous communities are usually fireweed and grasses, such as
bluejoint reedgrass.

Immediately following burning of a white spruce type, fireweed can form
relatively stable communities with bluejoint reedgrass that may last 100
years in interior Alaska [137]. Following fire in black spruce (Picea
mariana) in the Northwest Territories, fireweed is the most prominent
plant and is one of several diagnostic species for the first stage of
recovery [26]. This stage may last 1 to 20 years [26].

In Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir communities (Picea engelmannii-Abies
lasiocarpa), fireweed was dominant on stands 1 to 10 postdisturbance
years; it declined on stands 11 to 80 postdisturbance years [71,189].
Following fire in the western hemlock/Douglas-fir zone in the Olympic
Mountains, Washington, fireweed was common for stands 2 postfire years
[100]. However, it began to decline in frequency in stands 3 to 19
postfire years. After about 30 years, fireweed had a low average
frequency (4 to 10 percent) with about 1 percent cover in burned-over
areas of different cover types, such as paper birch (Betula papyrifera),
aspen, and jack pine (Pinus banksiana) [168]. This pattern was seen in
Douglas-fir stands in the Cascade Range, Washington, aged 5 to 73 years
following logging and burning [135]. Fonda [75] found that fireweed
persisted under similar circumstances in stands 65 years or younger.
Fireweed began to decline in frequency as the crown of different forest
types closed in stands approximately 57 to 280 postfire years and was
absent in stands aged 290 to 515 postfire years [40,100,207].

References:

6. Anderson, Jay E.; Romme, William H. 1991. Initial floristics in lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) forests following the 1988 Yellowstone fires. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 1(2): 119-124. [16008]
7. Anderson, Murray L.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1979. Effect of fire on a Symphoricarpos occidentalis shrub community in central Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 2820-2823. [2867]
8. Apfelbaum, Steven; Haney, Alan. 1981. Bird populations before and after wildfire in a Great Lakes pine forest. Condor. 83: 347-354. [8556]
9. Apfelbaum, Steven I.; Haney, Alan; Dole, R. Edward. 1984. Ascocarp formation by Morchella angusticeps after wildfire. Michigan Botanist. 23: 99-102. [8335]
13. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1984. Fire intensity effects on the understory in ponderosa pine forests. Journal of Range Management. 37(1): 44-48. [6618]
17. Barmore, William J., Jr.; Taylor, Dale; Hayden, Peter. 1976. Ecological effects and biotic succession following the 1974 Waterfalls Canyon Fire in Grand Teton National Park. Research Progress Report 1974-1975. Unpublished report on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 99 p. [16109]
18. Barth, Richard C. 1970. Revegetation after a subalpine wildfire. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 142 p. Thesis. [12458]
19. Bartos, Dale L. 1979. Effects of burning on the aspen ecosystem. In: Johnson, Kendall L., ed. Wyoming shrublands: Proceedings of the 8th shrub ecology workshop; 1979 May 30-31; Jackson, WY. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Division of Range Management, Wyoming Shrub Ecology Workshop: 47-58. [400]
20. Bartos, D. L.; Mueggler, W. F. 1981. Early succession in aspen communities following fire in western Wyoming. Journal of Range Management. 34(4): 315-318. [5100]
26. Black, R. A.; Bliss, L. C. 1978. Recovery sequence of Picea mariana - Vaccinium uliginosum forests after burning near Inuvik, Northwest Territories, Canada. Canadian Journal of Botany. 56: 2020-2030. [7448]
33. Buckley, John L. 1958. Effects of fire on Alaskan wildlife. In: Proceedings of the Society of American Foresters: 123-126. [16306]
36. Cattelino, Peter J. 1980. A reference base for vegetative response and species reproductive strategies. Final Report. Supplement No. 10 to Master Memorandum between Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station and Gradient Modeling, Inc. Missoula, MT: Gradient Modeling, Inc. 30 p. [12085]
38. Chrosciewicz, Z. 1970. Regeneration of jack pine by burning and seeding treatments on clear-cut sites in central Ontario. Inf. Rep. 0-X-138. Forest Research laboratory, Ontario Region, Canadian Forestry Service, Department of Fisheries and Forestry. 13 p. [7241]
39. Chrosciewicz, Z. 1976. Burning for black spruce regeneration on a lowland cutover site in southeastern Manitoba. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 6(2): 179-186. [7280]
40. Clagg, Harry B. 1975. Fire ecology in high-elevation forests in Colorado. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 137 p. Thesis. [113]
43. Comeau, Philip G.; Watts, Susan B.; Caza, Caroline L.; [and others]
45. Cooper, William S. 1928. Seventeen years of successional change upon Isle Royale, Lake Superior. Ecology. 9(1): 1-5. [7297]
51. Croskery, P. R.; Lee, P. F. 1981. Preliminary investigations of regeneration patterns following wildfire in the boreal forest of northwestern Ontario. Alces. 17: 229-256. [7888]
63. Dyrness, C. T. 1973. Early stages of plant succession following logging and burning in the western Cascades of Oregon. Ecology. 54(1): 57-69. [7345]
71. Fahnestock, George Reeder. 1977. Interactions of forest fire, flora, and fuels in two Cascade Range wilderness Areas. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 179 p. Thesis. [10431]
75. Fonda, R. W. 1979. Fire resilient forests of Douglas-fir in Olympic National Park: a hypothesis. In: Linn, Robert M., ed. Proceedings, 1st conference on scientific research in the National Parks, Vol. 2; 1976 November 9-12; New Orleans, LA. NPS Transactions and Proceedings No. 5. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service: 1239-1242. [6698]
78. Foster, David R. 1985. Vegetation development following fire in Picea mariana (black spruce) - Pleurozium forests of south-eastern Labrador, Canada. Journal of Ecology. 73: 517-534. [7222]
80. Gashwiler, Jay S. 1970. Plant and mammal changes on a clearcut in west-central Oregon. Ecology. 51(6): 1018-1026. [8523]
100. Huff, Mark Hamilton. 1984. Post-fire succession in the Olympic Mountains, Washington: forest vegetation, fuels, and avifauna. Seattle, WA: University of Washington. 235 p. Dissertation. [9248]
135. Long, James N. 1977. Trends in plant species diversity associated with development in a series of Pseudotsuga menziesii/Gaultheria shallon stands. Northwest Science. 51(2): 119-130. [10152]
137. Lutz, H. J. 1953. The effects of forest fires on the vegetation of interior Alaska. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 36 p. [7076]
138. Lutz, H. J. 1956. Ecological effects of forest fires in the interior of Alaska. Tech. Bull. No. 1133. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 121 p. [7653]
139. Lyon, L. Jack. 1971. Vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-105. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 30 p. [1495]
140. Lyon, L. Jack. 1976. Vegetal development on the Sleeping Child burn in western Montana, 1961 to 1973. Res. Pap. INT-184. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 24 p. [138]
141. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
142. MacLean, David A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Changes in understory vegetation with increasing stand age in New Brunswick forests: species composition, cover, biomass, and nutrients. Canadian Journal of Botany. 55: 2818-2831. [10106]
147. Martin, J. Lynton. 1956. An ecological survey of burned-over forest land in southwestern Nova Scotia. Forestry Chronicle. 32: 313-336. [8932]
155. Miller, Margaret M.; Miller, Joseph W. 1976. Succession after wildfire in the North Cascades National Park complex. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference: Pacific Northwest; 1974 October 16-17; Portland, OR. No. 15. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 71-83. [6574]
160. Morris, William G. 1970. Effects of slash burning in overmature stands of the Douglas-fir region. Forest Science. 16(3): 258-270. [4810]
162. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
165. Neiland, Bonita J. 1958. Forest and adjacent burn in the Tillamook Burn area of northwestern Oregon. Ecology. 39(4): 660-671. [8879]
168. Ohmann, Lewis F.; Cushwa, Charles T.; Lake, Roger E.; [and others]
170. Oswald, E. T.; Brown, B. N. 1990. Vegetation establishment during 5 years following wildfire in northern British Columbia and southern Yukon Territory. Information Report BC-X-320. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific and Yukon Region, Pacific Forestry Centre. 46 p. [16934]
174. Racine, Charles H.; Johnson, Lawrence A.; Viereck, Leslie A. 1987. Patterns of vegetation recovery after tundra fires in northwestern Alaska, U.S.A. Arctic and Alpine Research. 19(4): 461-469. [6114]
189. Scrivner, Jerry H.; Smith, H. Duane. 1981. Pocket gophers (Thomomys talpoides) in successional stages of spruce-fir forest in Idaho. Great Basin Naturalist. 41(3): 362-367. [7900]
193. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
203. Stickney, Peter F. 1986. First decade plant succession following the Sundance Forest Fire, northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-197. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 26 p. [2255]
204. Stickney, Peter F. 1990. Early development of vegetation following holocaustic fire in Northern Rocky Mountains. Northwest Science. 64(5): 243-246. [12715]
205. Strang, Roy M. 1989. Impacts of fire on herbaceous vegetation. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Breuer, David W.; Zamora, Benjamin A.; [and others]
207. Taylor, Dale L. 1969. Biotic succession of lodgepole pine forests of fire origin in Yellowstone National Park. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming. 320 p. M.S. thesis. [9481]
212. Uemura, Shigeru; Tsuda, Satoshi; Hasegawa, Sakae. 1990. Effects of fire on the vegetation of Siberian taiga predominated by Larix dahurica. Canadian Journal of Forestry Research. 20: 547-553. [11808]
215. Van Cleve, K.; Viereck, L.A.; Dyrness, C.T. 1988. Vegetation productivity and soil fertility in post-fire secondary succession in Interior Alaska. In: Slaughter, Charles W.; Gasbarro, Tony. Proceedings of the Alaska forest soil productivity workshop; 1987 April 28-30; Anchorage, AK. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-219. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Station; Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska, School of Agriculture and Land Resources Management: 101-102. [5582]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Immediate Effect of Fire

Fire top-kills fireweed. Seed in the surface organic layers is killed
by fire [74]. Surviving fireweed rhizomes vigorously sprout after a
fire [35,86]. Twenty to thirty days after fires in July and August
fireweed sprouted from rhizomes [195,199].

References:

35. Carroll, S. B.; Bliss, L. C. 1982. Jack pine - lichen woodland on sandy soils in northern Saskatchewan and northeastern Alberta. Canadian Journal of Botany. 60: 2270-2282. [7283]
74. Flinn, Marguerite A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Depth of underground plant organs and theoretical survival during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany. 55: 2550-2554. [6362]
86. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]
195. Skutch, Alexander F. 1929. Early stages of plant succession following forest fires. Ecology. 10(2): 177-190. [21349]
199. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1991. Monitoring the effects of postfire grass seeding on the Lowman Burn. Unpublished first year progress report. 4 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17154]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Post-fire Regeneration

More info for the terms: geophyte, secondary colonizer

   Geophyte, growing points deep in soil
   Initial-offsite colonizer (off-site, initial community)
   Secondary colonizer - on-site seed

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Fire Ecology

More info for the term: litter

Fireweed is a component of diverse ecosystems in boreal and temperate
regions with variable FIRE REGIMES. Fireweed is primarily adapted to
fire through its rhizomes and its prolific production of wind-dispersed
seed. Depending upon depth of rhizomes in the soil, fireweed is
moderately susceptible to resistant to fire [43,150,219]. The majority
of roots and rhizomes are in the top 2 inches (5 cm) of mineral soil and
can survive relatively intense fires [43,74,150].

Fireweed has high ash and high moisture content; it is not considered
flammable [223]. A study that examined litter fall in aspen (Populus
tremuloides) stands found that the dominant herbaceous species was
fireweed, which contributed 334.6 pounds per acre (375 kg/ha) to litter
[48]. However, fireweed litter rapidly decomposes. Fireweed leaves
lost more than 70 percent of their mass after 3 years in the field
[206].

References:

43. Comeau, Philip G.; Watts, Susan B.; Caza, Caroline L.; [and others]
48. Cragg, J. B.; Carter, Alan; Leischner, Clara; [and others]
74. Flinn, Marguerite A.; Wein, Ross W. 1977. Depth of underground plant organs and theoretical survival during fire. Canadian Journal of Botany. 55: 2550-2554. [6362]
150. McLean, Alastair. 1968. Fire resistance of forest species as influenced by root systems. Journal of Range Management. 22: 120-122. [1621]
206. Taylor, B. R.; Prescott, C. E.; Parsons, W. J. F.; Parkinson, D. 1991. Substrate control of litter decomposition in four Rocky Mountain coniferous forests. Canadian Journal of Botany. 69: 2242-2250. [17444]
219. Volland, Leonard A.; Dell, John D. 1981. Fire effects on Pacific Northwest forest and range vegetation. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region, Range Management and Aviation and Fire Management. 23 p. [2434]
223. Wein, Ross W. 1975. Arctic tundra fires--ecological consequences. In: Proceedings, circumpolar conference on northern ecology; [Date unknown]

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Successional Status

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: cover, frequency, shrub, succession, tree

Fireweed is an important colonizer following vegetation disturbances in
temperate climates worldwide [46,157]. Although the role of fireweed as
an early seral species does not change, the length of time fireweed
populations are present varies among ecosystems. Fireweed enters a
disturbed community and rapidly becomes abundant. It may achieve a peak
in dominance within 2 to 3 years [43]. It starts low in frequency and
density if it must seed in from off-site [118]. Halpern [86] found that
after disturbance in Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii) forests in
Oregon, fireweed cover peaked in year 7 and then slowly declined.

Fireweed populations can maintain themselves through vegetative
reproduction if conditions are not conducive to flowering. Depending
upon surrounding vegetation fireweed may create widely spaced colonies
with low stem densities [29]. In Alaska, ground that was covered 30
years by debris from oil exploration was cleared or burned [64].
Fireweed vegetatively colonized these areas at low frequencies and
cover. In 20 study sites in Montana, Stickney [202] reported that
fireweed established with about 3 percent cover 1 year after
disturbance. By the second year, it peaked at about 30 percent cover
and stayed around this amount for the next 8 years.

Fireweed is one of the first plants to enter a community during the
seedling/herb stage [3,50]. This may last 1 to 15 years in the Yukon
Territory [92]. Sometimes, it will persist into the pole stage [84].
Young forests differ in the range of microhabitats (i.e., variations in
light, nutrients, and moisture) available; fireweed will persist if a
stand is open [43].

Moore [157] stated that fireweed declined in successional communities
because soil conditions became unsuitable for growth as nutrients are
leached out. However, other studies suggest that fireweed declines due
to the effects of competing vegetation [149,207]. Progressive changes
from open to closed canopy in a forest result in decreasing abundance of
fireweed [3,40,207]. Several studies report that fireweed is shade
intolerant [81,115,124,157,182,217]. However, it can exist in partial
shade with a corresponding reduction in productivity [200]. Shirley
[192] found that fireweed response to Norway pine (Pinus resinosa)
canopy cover was variable. At 5 percent of total sunlight, fireweed
occurred with 62 percent frequency; at 10 percent of total sunlight,
fireweed occurred with 100 percent frequency [192]. Frequency of
fireweed plants declined to 50 percent at 45 percent of total sunlight
and then, increased to 100 percent frequency at 65 to 100 percent of
total sunlight. Mueggler [162] found a significant (p less than 0.05) decrease in
fireweed frequency when tree canopy cover exceeded 41 percent.

Fireweed colonizes recent alluvial deposits [132]. It acts as a pioneer
species on glacial moraines, establishing with willows (Salix spp.) on
exposed gravel, sand, and silt bars [216,226]. In Glacier Bay, Alaska,
the pioneer stage with fireweed and willows lasts 1 to 5 years [213].

In succession on delta swamps in Michigan, the grass stage with
bluejoint reedgrass and fireweed follows the sedge-mat stage. The grass
stage is succeeded by a shrub stage [44].

Fireweed is an indicator of a mid-seral stage of succession in the herb
layer of the grand fir/Rocky mountain maple (Abies grandis/Acer glabrum)
habitat type in central Idaho [200]. It is an indicator of early seral
stages in grand fir/blue huckleberry (Vaccinium globulare) habitat types
[198].

References:

3. Alaback, Paul B. 1984. Plant succession following logging in the Sitka spruce-western hemlock forests of southeast Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-173. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7849]
29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
40. Clagg, Harry B. 1975. Fire ecology in high-elevation forests in Colorado. Fort Collins, CO: Colorado State University. 137 p. Thesis. [113]
43. Comeau, Philip G.; Watts, Susan B.; Caza, Caroline L.; [and others]
46. Cormack, R. G. H. 1953. A survey of coniferous forest succession in the eastern Rockies. Forestry Chronicle. 29: 218-232. [16458]
50. Cromack, K.; Swanson, F. J.; Grier, C. C. 1979. A comparison of harvesting methods and their impact on soils and environment in the Pacific Northwest. In: Youngberg, Chester T., ed. Forest soils and land use--Proceedings, 5th North American forest soils conference; 1978 August 6-9; [Location of conference unknown]
64. Ebersole, James J. 1987. Short-term vegetation recovery at an Alaskan arctic coastal plain site. Arctic and Alpine Research. 19(4): 442-450. [9476]
81. Gates, Frank C. 1942. The bogs of northern lower Michigan. Ecological Monographs. 12(3): 213-254. [10728]
84. Green, Pat; Jensen, Mark. 1991. Plant succession within managed grand fir forests of northern Idaho. In: Harvey, Alan E.; Neuenschwander, Leon F., compilers. Proceedings--management and productivity of western-montane forest soils; 1990 April 10-12; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-280. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 232-236. [15987]
86. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]
92. Hawkes, Brad C. 1982. Fire history and ecology of forest ecosystems in Kluane National Park. In: Wein, Ross W.; Riewe, Roderick R.; Methven, Ian R., eds. Resources and dynamics of the Boreal Zone; [Date of conference unknown]
115. Kellman, M. C. 1969. Plant species interrelationships in a secondary succession in coastal British Columbia. Syesis. 2: 201-212. [6589]
118. Kienholz, Raymond. 1929. Revegetation after logging and burning in the Douglas-fir region of western Washington. Illinois State Academy of Science. 21: 94-108. [8764]
124. Kudish, Michael. 1992. Adirondack upland flora: an ecological perspective. Saranac, NY: The Chauncy Press. 320 p. [19376]
149. McArdle, Richard E.; Isaac, Leo A. 1934. The ecological aspects of natural regeneration of Douglas fir in the Pacific North-west. Proceedings, 5th Pacific Science Congress. 5: 4009-4051. [15053]
157. Moore, Peter D. 1982. Fire: catastrophic or creative force?. Impact of Science on Society. 32(1): 5-14. [15628]
162. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
182. McCune, Bruce. 1982. Site, history and forest dynamics in the Bitterroot canyons, Montana. Madison, WI: University of Wisconsin. 166 p. Thesis. [7232]
192. Shirley, Hardy L. 1932. Light intensity in relation to plant growth in a virgin Norway pine forest. Journal of Agricultural Research. 44: 227-244. [10360]
200. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1992. The grand fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-284. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90 p. [17791]
202. Stickney, Peter F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to 9 years, in Montana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 133 p. [6583]
207. Taylor, Dale L. 1969. Biotic succession of lodgepole pine forests of fire origin in Yellowstone National Park. Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming. 320 p. M.S. thesis. [9481]
217. Vogl, Richard J. 1964. The effects of fire on a muskeg in northern Wisconsin. Journal of Wildlife Management. 28(2): 317-329. [12170]
226. Yarie, J.; Viereck, L.; Van Cleve, K.; Dryness, C. T. 1988. The chronosequence as an aid to understanding the long-term conse- quences of management activities. In: Dyck, W. J.; Mees, C. A, eds. Research Strategies for Long-term Productivity. Proceedings, IEA/BE A3 Workshop; [Date of conference unknown]
44. Cooper, William S. 1913. The climax forest of Isle Royale, Lake Superior, and its development. III. Botanical Gazette. 55(3): 189-235. [11539]
132. LeResche, R. E.; Bishop, R. H.; Coady, J. W. 1974. Distribution and habitats of moose in Alaska. Le Naturaliste Canadien. 101: 143-178. [15190]
198. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1987. The grand fir/blue huckleberry habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-228. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 66 p. [8133]
213. Ugolini, F. C. 1968. Soil development and alder invasion in a recently deglaciated area of Glacier Bay, Alaska. In: Trappe, J. M.; Franklin, J. F.; Tarrant, R. F.; Hansen, G. M., eds. Biology of alder: Proceedings of a symposium; 1967 April 14-15; Pullman, WA. Portland, OR: U. S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 115-140. [6211]
216. Viereck, Leslie A. 1970. Forest succession and soil development adjacent to the Chena River in interior Alaska. Arctic and Alpine Research. 2(1): 1-26. [12466]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Regeneration Processes

More info for the terms: eruption, rhizome

Fireweed regenerates sexually and asexually. Airborne seeds allow
fireweed to establish rapidly [93]. Hungerford [103] noted that an
opening in a canopy was not enough to ensure fireweed establishment.
Fireweed requires bare mineral soil in addition to high light for
germination [137]. Moisture supply is more stable and more nutrients
are available on a mineral soil seedbed [137]. Once established, it
forms large colonies via rhizomes and produces large amounts of seed
[41].

Vegetative Reproduction: Vegetative reproduction is more prevalent than
sexual reproduction [29]. Fireweed may not flower every year in the
northern limits of its range or at alpine elevations in the southern
limits [43,185].

Fireweed readily sprouts from rhizomes following disturbance. Fireweed
was a residual survivor on Mount St. Helens, Washington, following the
1980 volcanic eruption [143,152]. Shoots sprouting from rhizomes are
capable of very rapid growth; they may bloom within 1 month [195].
Fragmentation of rhizomes stimulates shoot production [41]. A
4-year-old rhizome was excavated and found to be 20 feet (6.1 m) long;
it had 56 perennating buds. Rhizome length depends on soil fertility
and amount of competing vegetation present [104].

Sexual Reproduction: Fireweed flowers can self-cross or outcross [29].
They are principally pollinated by insects [29]. Fireweed is a prolific
seed producer [41]. One plant may produce about 80,000 seeds per year
[196]. In seed traps placed on a burn in Saskatchewan, fireweed
represented 63 percent of all germinated seeds [11]. One year after the
Mount St. Helens explosion, 81 percent of seed collected in seed traps
were fireweed seeds [55]. Fireweed was one of the most abundant
colonizers on Mount St. Helens [143,152,158].

Seeds are nondormant and germinate over a variety of temperatures. One
hundred percent of newly collected fireweed seeds germinated within 10
days [29]. Fireweed does not create a long-lived seed bank [10,110,146].
Most seeds lose viability after 18 to 24 months [29,43,87]. Optimum
germinating conditions are warm, well-lighted, and humid [29]. Seed
collected from subalpine (9,285 feet [2,830 m]) meadows in the Sierra
Nevada, California, gave 55 to 68 percent germination under day/night
temperature regimes of 62/55 degrees Fahrenheit (17/13 deg C) and 81/73
degrees Fahrenheit (27/23 deg C), respectively. The lowest percent
germination (12 percent) was at 53.6/46.4 degrees Fahrenheit (12/8 deg
C) [37]. Broderick [29] reported similar germination rates; however, he
saw 86 percent germination at 86 degrees Fahrenheit (30 deg C).

Fireweed seed hairs or plumes respond to humidity. Increased humidity
causes a decreased plume diameter which results in reduced loft [55].
This increases the chance that seeds are deposited in places with
moisture adequate for germination. Plumed seed has low rates (0.21 to
0.23 foot per second [0.065-0.069 m/s]) of fall in still air [196].
Using modified insect suction traps mounted on radio towers, Solbreck
and Andersson [196] found that 20 to 50 percent of the seeds sampled at
328 feet (100 m) in an air column above a burned forest in Sweden were
fireweed seeds. Since the seeds were commonly aloft for 10 hours per
day, they suggested that the seeds traveled 62.2 to 186.5 miles (100-300
km) during that time. Broderick [29] reported that the seed rain of
fireweed for all of northern Quebec was 3.7 seeds per square foot (40
seeds/sq m).

References:

10. Archibold, O. W. 1979. Buried viable propagules as a factor in postfire regeneration in northern Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 57: 54-58. [5934]
11. Archibold, O. W. 1980. Seed imput into a postfire forest site in northern Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 10: 129-134. [4506]
29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
37. Chabot, Brian F.; Billings, W. D. 1972. Origins and ecology of the Sierran alpine flora and vegetation. Ecological Monographs. 42(2): 163-199. [11228]
41. Coates, D.; Haeussler, S. 1986. A preliminary guide to the response of major species of competing vegetation to silvicultural treatments. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests, Information Services Branch; Land Management Handbook Number 9. 88 p. [17453]
43. Comeau, Philip G.; Watts, Susan B.; Caza, Caroline L.; [and others]
55. Dale, Virginia H. 1989. Wind dispersed seeds and plant recovery on the Mount St. Helens debris avalanche. Canadian Journal of Botany. 67: 1434-1441. [12670]
87. Hamilton, Evelyn H.; Yearsley, H. Karen. 1988. Vegetation development after clearcutting and site preparation in the SBS zone. Economic and Regional Development Agreement: FRDA Report 018. Victoria, BC: Canadian Forestry Service, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests and Lands. 66 p. [8760]
93. Hendrickson, William H. [n.d.]
103. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Weed control for forest productivity in the interior West; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]
104. Ingram, Douglas C. 1931. Vegetative changes and grazing use on Douglas-fir cut-over land. Journal of Agricultural Research. 43(5): 387-417. [8877]
110. Johnson, E. A. 1975. Buried seed populations in the subarctic forest east of Great Slave Lake, Northwest Territories. Canadian Journal of Botany. 53: 2933-2941. [6466]
137. Lutz, H. J. 1953. The effects of forest fires on the vegetation of interior Alaska. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 36 p. [7076]
143. MacMahon, James A. 1983. Nothing succeeds like succession: ecology and the human lot. 67th Faculty Honor Lecture, Utah State University, Logan Utah. Utah State University Press. 31 p. [7916]
146. Major, J.; Pyott, W. T. 1966. Buried, viable seeds in two California bunchgrass sites and their bearing on the definition of a flora. Vegetatio. 13: 254-282. [6343]
152. Means, Joseph E.; McKee, W. Arthur; Moir, William H.; Franklin, Jerry F. 1982. Natural revegetation of the northeastern portion of the devestated area. In: Keller, S. A, C.; ed. Mount St. Helens: one year later: Proceedings of a symposium; 1981 May 17-18; Cheney, WA. Cheney, WA: Eastern Washington University Press: 93-103. [5977]
158. Morris, William F.; Wood, David M. 1989. The role of lupine in succession on Mount St. Helens: facilitation or inhibition. Ecology. 70(3): 697-703. [9149]
185. Schaack, Clark G. 1983. The alpine vascular flora of Arizona. Madrono. 30(4): 79-88. [2069]
195. Skutch, Alexander F. 1929. Early stages of plant succession following forest fires. Ecology. 10(2): 177-190. [21349]
196. Solbreck, Crister; Andersson, David. 1987. Vertical distribution of fireweed, Epilobium augustifolium, seeds in the air. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 2177-2178. [6619]

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Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: geophyte, hemicryptophyte

Geophyte
Hemicryptophyte

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Life Form

More info for the term: forb

Forb

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Cyclicity

Phenology

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

The time ranges given here for the phenological stages of fireweed
reflect its widespread distribution, varying from region to region and
from habitat to habitat. Root growth can begin at 40 degrees Fahrenheit
(4.5 deg C), preceding stem emergence [29]. Shoots emerge in spring
(late March to early June). Leaves are full grown approximately 1 month
after emergence [43]. Maximum biomass occurs in summer (August) and may
be 0.12 to 0.19 pounds per square foot (0.6-0.9 kg/sq m) [43]. Flowers
bloom June through September [83,111,164,188,191,224]. Fruits mature
approximately 1 month later [187]. Seeds are released beginning in
August and continue to be shed after shoots have died from frost injury
[43,187]. Foliage will turn color with limited water availability in
the late summer and fall [62]. Seeds germinate late summer or fall, and
seedlings overwinter as a rosette [43]. The primary and secondary roots
of seedlings may develop buds which overwinter [195]. Shoot buds form
in the fall on lateral roots and overwinter just below the soil surface
[29].

References:

29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
43. Comeau, Philip G.; Watts, Susan B.; Caza, Caroline L.; [and others]
62. Drew, Larry Albert. 1967. Comparative phenology of seral shrub communities in the cedar/hemlock zone. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 108 p. Thesis. [9654]
83. Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Flora of the Great Plains. Lawrence, KS: University Press of Kansas. 1392 p. [1603]
111. Jones, G. N.; Fuller, G. D. 1955. Vascular plants of Illinois. Urbana, IL: University of Illinois Press. 593 p. [18964]
164. Munz, Philip A. 1973. A California flora and supplement. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1905 p. [6155]
187. Schmidt, Wyman C.; Lotan, James E. 1980. Phenology of common forest flora of the northern Rockies--1928 to 1937. Res. Pap. INT-259. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 20 p. [2082]
188. Scoggan, H. J. 1978. The flora of Canada. Ottawa, Canada: National Museums of Canada. (4 volumes). [18143]
191. Seymour, Frank Conkling. 1982. The flora of New England. 2d ed. Phytologia Memoirs 5. Plainfield, NJ: Harold N. Moldenke and Alma L. Moldenke. 611 p. [7604]
195. Skutch, Alexander F. 1929. Early stages of plant succession following forest fires. Ecology. 10(2): 177-190. [21349]
224. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]

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Cyclicity

Flowering from July to September; fruiting from August to October.

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Wen, Jun

Evolution

Phylogenetic relationships of Onagraceae were inferred from nuclear region (ITS) and two chloroplast regions (trnL-trnF and rps16) (Levin et al., 2004). Results strongly suggest that tribe Gongylocarpeae is sister to tribes Epilobieae and Onagreae, both of which are monophyletic. Within this lineage, Chamerion angustifolium is sister to a monophyletic Epilobium.

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Wen, Jun

Genetics

The chromosomal number of Chamerion angustifolium is 2n = 36 (Yurtsev and Zhukova, 1982).

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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD)

Rights Holder:

Wen, Jun

Molecular Biology

Statistics of barcoding coverage: Chamerion angustifolium

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 22
Specimens with Barcodes: 39
Species With Barcodes: 1

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http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/

Rights Holder:

Barcode of Life Data Systems

Conservation Status

National NatureServe Conservation Status

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Source:

NatureServe

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NatureServe

NatureServe Conservation Status

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

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NatureServe

License:

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Threats

Comments: Lack of disturbance (succession) is a moderate threat to this species (Southern Appalachian Species Viability Project 2002).

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NatureServe

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Management

Management considerations

More info for the terms: cover, frequency, presence, tree

Although fireweed does not readily invade established vegetation, it may
be a problem when establishing confer seedlings [43]. Fireweed overtops
conifer seedlings and will persist for 10 years or more [15,29,43,
138,166]. It contributes to snow press damage of tree seedlings [87].
The thick rhizomes of fireweed may serve as occasional sources of
rootrot (Armillaria ostoyae), a destructive disease in ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa) [121].

Fireweed is better adapted to subalpine habitats than are some
introduced species used in roadside seedings. Some managers regard
fireweed as the most prominent weed of montane areas [77].

Biological Control: A wide range of aphids and other insects have been
reported as parasites or associates on fireweed [29]. In a fireweed
population in northern Idaho, the smaller plants were dying of Aecidium
infections [102].

Chemical Control: Soil-acting compounds (e.g., bromacil) and foliar
sprays (e.g., 2,4-D) give effective control of fireweed [29,43].
However, glyphosate only gives a short-term reduction in fireweed cover
[43,171]. Other herbicides, such as pronamid or terbacil at rates of 2
pounds active ingredients per acre (2.2 kg ai/ha), do not control
fireweed [201].

In a visual assessment of foliar susceptibility, fireweed was
extensively damaged by sulphur dioxide released from a burning landfill
[96].

Mechanical Control: Fireweed is susceptible to damage from continual
grazing, trampling, or mowing [29]. However, stembases are stimulated
by cutting to produce more shoots and rhizomes [41]. Early spring
grazing of fireweed stimulates shoot production; plants can be grazed
again in the fall. Since this grazing regime lowers fireweed
vitality, grazing can be used for suppression [104]. Fireweed cover was
reduced from 50 percent to 25 percent after 2 years of grazing by sheep
[107]. By year 7, fireweed began to disappear. Fireweed has low
resistance to human trampling. Less than 40 passes per year through a
fireweed population reduced its frequency and cover [42], but it was
able to recover between seasons of use.

Various straw mulches were placed on a clearcut in Quebec to suppress
herbaceous vegetation [109]. The mulch had no effect on the presence of
fireweed.

Disturbance to the forest floor may increase fireweed. V-blade and
brush rake site preparation methods after clearcutting increased the
amount of fireweed; however, disking did not [108]. Unscalped areas
supported more fireweed cover on both clearcut and shelterwood cut white
spruce (Picea glauca) stands in Alaska [228]. Unscarified areas in
clearcut sub-boreal forests had higher fireweed cover than
blade-scarified areas; however, unscarified areas in clearcut boreal
forests had lower fireweed cover than blade-scarified areas [27].

To enhance forage species, such as fireweed, subalpine fir (Abies
lasiocarpa) was clearcut in strips. Fireweed significantly (p less than 0.05)
increased in standing crop biomass on the cut areas [177]. Foliar cover
and height of fireweed are able to account for 89 percent of the
variation in biomass in a variety of cover types in Alaska [225]. This
model can be used to predict the productivity of an area.

Industry Considerations: Fireweed is an important nectar producer for
the honey industry throughout Canada [29]. Honey production from
fireweed in the Soviet Union was reported as 892.2 pounds per acre (1,000
kg/ha) [29]. Ingram [104] noted that apiarists followed logging
operations to ensure fireweed nectar sources.

References:

27. Brand, David G. 1991. The establishment of boreal and sub-boreal conifer plantations: an integrated analysis of environmental conditions and seedling growth. Forest Science. 37(1): 68-100. [14408]
29. Broderick, D. H. 1990. The biology of Canadian weeds. 93. Epilobium angustifolium L. (Onagraceae). Canadian Journal of Plant Science. 70: 247-259. [11077]
41. Coates, D.; Haeussler, S. 1986. A preliminary guide to the response of major species of competing vegetation to silvicultural treatments. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests, Information Services Branch; Land Management Handbook Number 9. 88 p. [17453]
42. Cole, David N. 1988. Disturbance and recovery of trampled montane grassland and forests in Montana. Res. Pap. INT-389. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 37 p. [3622]
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