Odocoileus virginianus

The White-tailed Deer is distinguished from the Mule Deer by the smaller size of its ears, the color of its tail, and most strikingly, by antler shape. In Whitetails, the main beam of the antlers grows forward rather than upwards, and each tine develops as its own separate branch rather than being split into a forked pair. The two species also run differently when they are alarmed. Mule Deer stot, a boing-boing-boing motion in which all four feet leave and hit the ground with each bound, whereas White-tailed Deer spring forward, pushing off with their hind legs and landing on their front feet. Today White-tails are very widespread in North America: there may be as many as 15 million in the United States. These Deer are adaptable browsers, feeding on leaves, twigs, shoots, acorns, berries, and seeds, and they also graze on grasses and herbs. In areas where they live alongside Mule Deer, the species naturally separate ecologically, the Whitetails staying closer to moist streams and bottomlands, the Mule Deer preferring drier, upland places.

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  More images, video and sound of the Key deer, a subspecies

White-tailed deer are native to both the Nearctic and Neotropical regions. They inhabit most of southern Canada and all of the mainland United States except portions of the west central states to the California coast. Their range extends throughout Central America to Bolivia.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

The white-tailed deer (whitetail) ranges from coast to coast across
North America. However, it is not found along the southwestern coast of
the United States or the coast of British Columbia. The whitetail's
range also extends from central Canada south through South America, with
a small portion possibly extending north into the southern Northwest
Territories. The whitetail has been introduced in the Virgin Islands
and other parts of the Caribbean. The North American subspecies and
their distributions are listed below [2,24]:

ssp. borealis - from central Ontario and Quebec south to southern
Illinois, and from central Minnesota to the East Coast
ssp. clavium - Florida Keys
ssp. couesi - central Arizona south through Mexico and southwestern
New Mexico
ssp. dakotensis - southern Northwest Territories west into central
Saskatchewan and Manitoba, and south through Alberta,
the Dakotas, eastern Montana, central Wyoming,
northern Colorado, and western Minnesota
ssp. hiltonensis - Hilton Head Island, South Carolina
ssp. leucurus - southwestern Washington and the western quarter of
Oregon
ssp. macrourus - Iowa, Missouri, Arkansas, northern Louisiana, eastern
Texas, Kansas, and Nebraska, and southeastern South
Dakota
ssp. mcilhennyi - southeastern Texas and southern Louisiana
ssp. nigribarbis - Blackbeard Island, Georgia
ssp. ochrourus - British Columbia to western Alberta, south through
western Montana, Idaho, eastern Washington and Oregon,
western Wyoming, northern Utah, and possibly a fringe
of the border between northern California and Nevada
ssp. osceola - midwestern Florida, north into southern Alabama and
Mississippi
ssp. seminolus - Florida
ssp. taurinsulae - Bulls Island, South Carolina
ssp. texanus - Nebraska, Kansas, Oklahoma, Texas, western New Mexico
and Colorado, and southeastern Wyoming
ssp. venatorius - Hunting Island, South Carolina
ssp. virginianus - Kentucky, West Virginia, Virginia, Tennesee, North
Carolina, South Carolina, Georgia, Mississippi, and
Alabama

More info on this topic.

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

1 Northern Pacific Border
2 Cascade Mountains
5 Columbia Plateau
7 Lower Basin and Range
8 Northern Rocky Mountains
9 Middle Rocky Mountains
10 Wyoming Basin
11 Southern Rocky Mountains
12 Colorado Plateau
13 Rocky Mountain Piedmont
14 Great Plains
15 Black Hills Uplift
16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

AK AZ AR CO CT DE FL GA ID IL IN IA KS KY LA ME MD MA MI MN MS MO MT NE NH NJ NM NY NC ND OH OK OR PA RI SC SD TN TX VT VA WA WV WI WY VI

AB BC MB NB NF NT NS ON PE PQ SK YK

MEXICO

This species occurs from southern Canada south through most of the U.S. and Mexico to South America (Peru, Ecuador, Bolivia, Colombia, northern Brazil, Venezuela, and the Guianas). Southernmost populations in the neotropics may represent other species (Molina and Molinari 1999). Absent from much of southwestern U.S. The species has been introduced in Czechoslovakia, Finland, New Zealand.

Whitetail deer inhabit most of southern Canada and all of the mainland United States except two or three states in the west. Their range reaches throughout Central America to Bolivia.

Biogeographic Regions: nearctic (Native ); neotropical (Native )

occurs (regularly, as a native taxon) in multiple nations

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

Global Range: (>2,500,000 square km (greater than 1,000,000 square miles)) Range extends from northwestern and southern Canada south through most of the United States, Mexico, and Central America to northern South America (Bolivia, northern Brazil, Colombia, French Guiana, Guyana, Peru, Surinam, and Venezuela). Southernmost populations in the neotropics may represent other species (Molina and Molinari 1999). The species has been introduced in the Czech Republic, Finland, New Zealand, and the West Indies(Grubb, in Wilson and Reeder 1993).

White-tailed deer have different colors depending on the season and their location. Usually they have greyish fur in winter and reddish-brown fur in summer. They have white patches of fur on their face and lower legs. The tail is brownish-red above and white below. When startled the deer lift this tail as they bound away, making the white patch prominent. Males have antlers that begin growing in April or May with a layer of velvety fur on them. In August and September the antlers shed this velvety covering for the mating season. The antlers fall off in January and are re-grown the next year. With each year of age a male will grow larger antlers with more points.

Range mass: 57.0 to 137.0 kg.

Range length: 160.0 to 220.0 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation

Average basal metabolic rate: 123.447 W.

Head and body length is 150 to 200 cm, tail length is 10 to 28 cm, and height at the shoulders is between 80 and 100 cm.

Odocoileus virginianus dorsal coloration differs in shading locally, seasonally, and among subspecies; however in general it is grayer in the winter and redder in the summer. White fur is located in a band behind the nose, in circles around the eyes, inside the ears, over the chin and throat, on the upper insides of the legs and beneath the tail. Whitetail deer have scent glands between the two parts of the hoof on all four feet, metatarsal glands on the outside of each hind leg, and a larger tarsal gland on the inside of each hind leg at the hock. Scent from these glands is used for intraspecies communication and secretions become especially strong during the rutting season. Males possess antlers which are shed from January to March and grow out again in April or May, losing their velvet in August or September. At birth, fawns are spotted with white in coloration and weight between 1.5 and 2.5 kg. Their coats become grayish lose their spots by their first winter. Whitetail deer have good eyesight and acute hearing, but depend mainly on their sense of smell to detect danger.

Range mass: 57.0 to 137.0 kg.

Range length: 160.0 to 220.0 cm.

Other Physical Features: endothermic ; homoiothermic; bilateral symmetry

Sexual Dimorphism: male larger; ornamentation

Average basal metabolic rate: 123.447 W.

Sexual Dimorphism: "Males are about 20% larger than females. "

Length:
Range: 0.85-2.4 m males

Weight:
Range: 22-137 kg males

Length: 206 cm

Weight: 135000 grams

White-tailed deer are able to survive in a variety of land habitats, from the forests of northern Maine to the swamps of Florida. They also inhabit farmlands, brushy areas, and the cactus and thornbrush deserts of southern Texas and Mexico. White-tailed deer prefer forest edges that are close to farmlands, old fields, and brushland. These kinds of habitats are commonly created by humans by forest cutting and clearing and through agricultural practices. As a result white-tailed deer do well near human habitations.

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical

Terrestrial Biomes: chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Wetlands: swamp

Habitat and Ecology

Systems

• Terrestrial

Whitetail deer are able to survive in a variety of terrestrial habitats, from the big woods of northern Maine to the deep saw grass and hammock swamps of Florida. They also inhabit farmlands, brushy areas and such desolate areas of the west such as the cactus and thornbrush deserts of southern Texas and Mexico. Ideal whitetail deer habitat would contain dense thickets (in which to hide and move about) and edges (which furnish food).

Habitat Regions: temperate ; tropical

Terrestrial Biomes: chaparral ; forest ; rainforest ; scrub forest

Wetlands: swamp

Habitat Type: Terrestrial

Comments: White-tailed deer occupy many types of habitats in mountains and lowlands, including various forests and woodlands, forest edges, shrublands, grasslands with shrubs, and residential areas. They are often associated with successional vegetation, especially near agricultural lands. In the north in winter, they tend to be in areas with minimal snow cover (if possible) and often use stands of conifers for shelter. Within arid regions, white-tailed deer prefer mesic situations (riparian zones, montane woodlands).

Non-Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species do not make significant seasonal migrations. Juvenile dispersal is not considered a migration.

Locally Migrant: Yes. At least some populations of this species make local extended movements (generally less than 200 km) at particular times of the year (e.g., to breeding or wintering grounds, to hibernation sites).

Locally Migrant: No. No populations of this species make annual migrations of over 200 km.

Seasonal migrations averaging 16-23 km are common in northern and montane regions. In northern New York, groups that used the same winter range were genetically more similar than groups using different winter ranges; this may be due to the traditional use of winter yards by matrilineal groups and may be maintained by female philopatry (Mathews and Porter 1993).

White-tailed deer feed on a variety of vegetation, depending on what is available in their habitat. In eastern forests, buds and twigs of certain trees and shrubs are eaten. In desert areas, certain cacti and other plants are eaten. Evergreen trees are eaten in the winter when other sources of food are not available. White-tailed deer feed mainly from before dawn until several hours after, and again from late afternoon until dusk.

Whitetail deer feed on a variety of vegetation, depending on what is available in their habitat. In eastern forests, buds and twigs of maple, sassafras, poplar, aspen and birch (to name a few) are consumed, as well as many shrubs. In desert areas, plants such as huajillo brush, yucca, prickly pear cactus, comal, ratama and various tough shrubs may be the main components of a whitetail's diet. Conifers are often utilized in winter when other foods are scarce. Whitetail deer are crepuscular, feeding mainly from before dawn until several hours after, and again from late afternoon until dusk.

Primary Diet: herbivore

Comments: White-tailed deer prepare for harsh northern winters when high-quality food is scarce by fattening up in autumn. In many areas, a diet of acorns is important in this process. They tend to lose weight all through winter on a diet of woody browse.

In the north, the diet dominated by grasses in spring, forbs in early summer, leafy green browse in late summer, acorns and other fruits in fall, evergreen woody browse in winter (grasses and forbs if low snow cover or low deer density) (McCullough 1985). They also commonly eats mushroom, especially in late summer and fall (Great Basin Nat. 52:321), as well as various farm crops in midwestern, plains, and southeastern agricultural regions of the U.S.

See Miller et al. (1992) for information on impacts on endangered and threatened vascular plants.

White-tailed deer can greatly influence the composition of plant communities through their grazing, especially where they are abundant. In severe winters white-tailed deer can be responsible for girdling and killing large numbers of trees. White-tailed deer are also important prey animals for a number of large predators.

White-tailed deer have good eyesight and acute hearing, but depend mainly on their sense of smell to detect danger and their ability to run and bound quickly through dense vegetation to escape danger. White-tailed deer are preyed on by large predators such as humans, Canis lupus, Puma concolor, Ursidae, Panthera onca, and Canis latrans.

Known Predators:

• humans (Homo_sapiens)
• gray wolves (Canis_lupus)
• mountain lions (Puma_concolor)
• coyotes (Canis_latrans)
• bears (Ursidae)
• jaguars (Panthera_onca)

Whitetail predators include humans, coyotes (Canis latrans), domestic
dogs (Canis familiaris), wolves (Canis lupus), black bears (Ursus
americanus), grizzly bears (Ursus arctos), mountains lions (Felis
concolor), lynx (Felis lynx), and bobcats (Felis rufus). Predators
having less of an impact on whitetail populations include foxes (Vulpes
spp.), fishers (Martes pennanti), golden eagles (Aquila chrysaetos), and
bald eagles (Haliaetus leucocephalus) [40].

White-tailed deer can greatly influence the composition of plant communities through their grazing, especially where they are abundant. In severe winters white-tailed deer can be responsible for girdling and killing large numbers of trees. White-tailed deer are also important prey animals for a number of large predators.

White-tailed deer have good eyesight and acute hearing, but depend mainly on their sense of smell to detect danger and their ability to run and bound quickly through dense vegetation to escape danger. White-tailed deer are preyed on by large predators such as humans, wolves, mountain lions, bears, jaguars, and coyotes.

Known Predators:

• humans (Homo sapiens)
• gray wolves (Canis lupus)
• mountain lions (Puma concolor)
• coyotes (Canis latrans)
• bears (Ursidae)
• jaguars (Panthera onca)

Odocoileus virginianus is prey of:
Ursidae
Homo sapiens
Panthera onca
Canis lupus
Canis latrans
Puma concolor

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Odocoileus virginianus preys on:
Schismus barbatus
mistletoe
leaves

Based on studies in:
USA: Arizona, Sonora Desert (Desert or dune)

This list may not be complete but is based on published studies.

Note: For many non-migratory species, occurrences are roughly equivalent to populations.

Estimated Number of Occurrences: > 300

>1,000,000 individuals

Two basic social groups: adult female(s) and young, and adult and occasionally yearling males (though adult males are solitary during the breeding season except when attending estrous females).

Home range 16-120 ha (40-300 acres) (Banfield 1974); varies with conditions, smallest in summer. Annual home range of sedentary populations averages 59-520 ha (Smith 1991). Some populations undergo annual migrations of 10 to 50 kilometers (Marchinton and Hirth 1984).

Population density 1 per 6-46 acres, depending upon environmental conditions (Baker 1983). In some areas density may exceed 50/sq km (Rooney 1995).

Dispersal from mother's home range is mostly by yearling males. In Minnesota, 7 of 35 yearling females dispersed 18-168 km from natal ranges during late May through June; dispersal was independent of deer density (Nelson and Mech 1992); 95% of all yearlings dispersed not more than 38 km (Nelson 1993). Home range formation may extend over 2-3 years.

Winter weather (snow accumulation) may strongly affect populations, even more so than density of wolves in areas where the latter are present (Mech et al. 1987, Potvin et al. 1992). In many areas, coyotes or domestic dogs are significant predators.

White-tailed deer carry and disperse into the environment meningeal worms that usually are fatal to moose and caribou but are clinically benign in deer; hence, white-tailed deer, through worm-mediated impacts, commonly are believed to exclude moose and caribou from areas where deer occur; however, an analysis by Schmitz and Nudds (1994) concluded that moose may be able to coexist with deer, albeit at lower densities, even in the absence of habitat refuges from the disease. Also, Whitlaw and Lankester (1994) found that the evidence that brainworm has caused moose declines is weak. Further study is needed.

Deer browsing may significantly impact vegetation characteristics (e.g., Anderson 1994).

White-tailed deer have scent glands between the two parts of the hoof on all four feet, outside of each hind leg, and on the inside of each hind leg. Scent from these glands is used to communicate with other deer and secretions become especially strong during the mating season.

White-tailed deer produce several types of vocalizations such as grunts, wheezes, and bleats. These vocalizations, along with other sounds and postures, are used for communication (Smith, 1991). Injured deer utter a startlingly loud "blatt" or bawl. Whistles or snorts of disturbed white-tailed deer are the most commonly heard sounds.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

White-tailed deer have scent glands between the two parts of the hoof on all four feet, outside of each hind leg, and on the inside of each hind leg. Scent from these glands is used to communicate with other deer and secretions become especially strong during the mating season.

White-tailed deer produce several types of vocalizations such as grunts, wheezes, and bleats. These vocalizations, along with other sounds and postures, are used for communication (Smith, 1991). Injured deer utter a startlingly loud "blatt" or bawl. Whistles or snorts of disturbed white-tailed deer are the most commonly heard sounds.

Communication Channels: visual ; tactile ; acoustic ; chemical

Other Communication Modes: pheromones ; scent marks

Perception Channels: visual ; acoustic

Comments: Active day or night; mainly crepuscular, though daily activity may vary seasonally.

Most white-tailed deer live about 2 to 3 years. Maximum life span in the wild is 20 years but few live past 10 years old.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 10.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 2.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 16.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 23.0 years.

Most white-tailed deer live about 2 to 3 years. Maximum life span in the wild is 20 years but few live past 10 years old.

Typical lifespan
Status: wild: 10.0 (high) years.

Average lifespan
Status: wild: 2.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 16.0 years.

Average lifespan
Status: captivity: 23.0 years.

Maximum longevity: 21.6 years (captivity) Observations: In the wild, few animals live more than 5-10 years. One pregnant female was about 19-23 years of age (Ronald Nowak 1999). Record longevity, however, belongs to one wild born female who still alive at about 21.6 years of age (Richard Weigl 2005).

Mating System: polygynous

Most white-tailed deer mate in their second year, though some females occasionally mate as young as seven months. Mating occurs between October and December and females are pregnant for 6 and 1/2 months. In her first pregnancy, a female will usually only have one baby (fawn), but after that she may give birth to 2 or 3. Fawns are able to walk at birth. They are nursed several times a day until they are 8 weeks old, after which they begin to add vegetation to their diet. Fawns are weaned by 10 weeks old.

Breeding interval: White-tailed deer breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from October to December, fawns are born in the spring.

Range number of offspring: 1.0 to 3.0.

Average gestation period: 6.5 months.

Range weaning age: 8.0 to 10.0 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.0 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.0 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 3000 g.

Average gestation period: 198 days.

Average number of offspring: 2.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 417 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 309 days.

White-tailed females are very protective of their babies. When looking for food, females leave their offspring in a hiding place for about four hours at a time. While waiting for their mother to return, fawns lay flat on the ground with their necks outstretched, well camouflaged against the forest floor. Fawns begin to follow their mother on her foraging trips once they are about 4 weeks old and are fully ruminant at two months old. White-tailed deer fawns are nursed for 8 to 10 weeks before they are weaned. Young males leave their mother after one year but young females often stay with their mother for two years.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents

Mating System: polygynous

Most whitetail deer (particularly males) mate in their second year, although some females occasionally mate as young as seven months. Bucks are polygamous although they may form an attachment and stay with a single doe for several days or even weeks until she reaches oestrus. Does are seasonally polyestrous and usually come into heat in November for a short twenty-four hour period. If a doe is not mated, a second estrus occurs approximately 28 days later. Mating occurs from October to December and gestation is approximately 6 and a half months. In her first year of breeding, a female generally has one fawn, but 2 per litter (occasionally 3 or 4) are born in subsequent years. Fawns are able to walk at birth and nibble on vegetation only a few days later.

Breeding interval: White-tailed deer breed once yearly.

Breeding season: Breeding occurs from October to December, fawns are born in the spring.

Range number of offspring: 1.0 to 3.0.

Average gestation period: 6.5 months.

Range weaning age: 8.0 to 10.0 weeks.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female): 2.0 years.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male): 2.0 years.

Key Reproductive Features: iteroparous ; seasonal breeding ; gonochoric/gonochoristic/dioecious (sexes separate); fertilization ; viviparous

Average birth mass: 3000 g.

Average gestation period: 198 days.

Average number of offspring: 2.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (male)
Sex: male: 417 days.

Average age at sexual or reproductive maturity (female)
Sex: female: 309 days.

White-tailed females are very protective of their babies. When looking for food, females leave their offspring in a hiding place for about four hours at a time. While waiting for their mother to return, fawns lay flat on the ground with their necks outstretched, well camouflaged against the forest floor. Fawns begin to follow their mother on her foraging trips once they are about 4 weeks old and are fully ruminant at two months old. White-tailed deer fawns are nursed for 8 to 10 weeks before they are weaned. Young males leave their mother after one year but young females often stay with their mother for two years.

Parental Investment: precocial ; pre-fertilization (Provisioning, Protecting: Female); pre-hatching/birth (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-weaning/fledging (Provisioning: Female, Protecting: Female); pre-independence (Protecting: Female); post-independence association with parents

Breeding occurs from late October to mid-December; with a peak in November. Female receptive period lasts 1-2 days; if not impregnated, a female becomes receptive again in 3-4 weeks. Gestation varies among populations from 187 to 222 days. Litter of usually 1-2 (sometimes 3 in optimal habitat) is born in May-June. Young initially stay hidden for 1-2 weeks and are weaned usually by 10 weeks postpartum (by fall). Females first breed sometimes at 6-7 months or more typically at 1.5 years; males are sexually mature at about 18 months. Few live more than 10 years.

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 5
Specimens with Barcodes: 27
Species With Barcodes: 1

White-tailed deer are common throughout their habitats. Exact counts of their numbers have not been made, but there are probably somewhere between 8 and 15 million on this continent. Although they were in danger of extinction at the turn of they century due to overhunting, they have recently reached their highest numbers.

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

Odocoileus virginianus leucurus and O. v. clavium are federally listed
as endangered. Odocoileus virginianus hiltonensis, nigribarbis,
taurinsulae, and venatoria are federally listed as Category 2 subspecies
[61].

O. v. leucurus is endangered in Washington and Oregon, and O. v. clavium
is endangered in Florida [55,60,62].

Year Assessed

Assessor/s

Reviewer/s

Contributor/s

Justification

History

• 1996
  Lower Risk/least concern
  (Baillie and Groombridge 1996)

Whitetail deer are extremely common throughout their ranges and are the most numerous of the large North American mammals. Precise estimates of their numbers have not been made, but there are probably somewhere between 8 and 15 million on this continent. Although their populations were decimated to the point of extinction in many areas at the turn of the century (due to overhunting), they have recently reached their highest numbers due to the improvement of their habitat by the cutting of climax forests, providing them with a greater amount of brush and shrubs on which to forage.

US Federal List: no special status

CITES: no special status

State of Michigan List: no special status

IUCN Red List of Threatened Species: least concern

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: N5 - Secure

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

Reasons: Widespread and common in many areas throughout the Americas.

The Key deer, Odocoileus virginianus clavium, is an Endangered subspecies and the Columbian white-tailed deer, Odocoileus virginianus leucurus, is Near Threatened.

Population

Population Trend

Major Threats

Comments: Feral dogs may be a nuisance to deer in some areas (Causey and Cude 1980). Some populations in Venezuela are threatened by overhunting and habitat loss (Moscarella et al. 2003).

Conservation Actions

Management Requirements: See Wood and Wolfe (1988) for discussion of viability of intercept feeding to reduce collisions.

Chemical repellents are largely ineffective in protecting agricultural, nursery, and landscaping plants from deer browsing (most effective product is "Big Game Repellent").

See Girard et al. (1993) for information on managing conflicts with animal activists on nature preserves.

See Halls (1984), Williamson (n.d.), Hygnstrom and Craven (1988), and Cypher and Cypher (1988) for management information. See Ellingwood and Caturano (1988) for wildlife bureau perspective on deer management.

See Jones and Whitham (1990) for information on post-translocation survival and movements of metropolitan deer.

White-tailed deer will eat and destroy crops, vegetable gardens and fruit trees if they come into contact with them. When their numbers become too high, white-tailed deer can cause serious damage to forest vegetation because there are so many deer eating the plants. They are also involved in accidents with cars, often resulting in serious injury to the human occupants of the vehicles.

White-tailed deer are commonly hunted for meat and sport. Early settlers and Native Americans also used deer hides to make buckskin leather. White-tailed heads are also commonly mounted on the walls of lodges and other places of outdoor recreation.

Positive Impacts: food

Whitetail deer are destructive to crops, vegetable gardens, fruit trees, and ornamental plants where their ranges overlap with human habitation. When their numbers become too high, whitetail deer can cause serious damage to forest vegetation through overbrowsing. They are involved in accidents with cars, often resulting in serious injury to the human occupants of the vehicles.

Whitetail deer are important as vectors disease because they serve as hosts to the ticks which carry the bacteria responsible Lyme disease. This has become an increasingly common disease in certain parts of the United States, especially the northeastern states.

Whitetail deer are commonly hunted for meat and sport. Early settlers and Native Americans also utilized whitetail deer hides to make buckskin leather. Whitetail heads are also commonly mounted on the walls of lodges and other places of outdoor recreation.

Positive Impacts: food

Comments: Causes damage when browsing in winter on agricultural and nursery crops and on ornamental plants around homes. Also may inhibit forest regeneration in certain situations (Tilghman 1989).

Deer-vehicle collisions (exceeding 20,000-30,000 per year in Michigan, New York, and Pennsylvania) often result when deer are attracted to sodium-rich roadsides that result from use of deicing salt.