Salix scouleriana

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [27]:

1 Northern Pacific Border

2 Cascade Mountains

3 Southern Pacific Border

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

References:

27. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Occurrence in North America

AKAZCACOIDMTNVNMORSDUTWAWY

ABBCMBSKYK

MEXICO

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Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Salix wendtii M.C. Johnst.:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

SPECIMEN BASED RECORD. Published protolog data.

Source:

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Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Salix pattersonii M.C. Johnst.:
Mexico (Mesoamerica)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

SPECIMEN BASED RECORD. Published protolog data.

Source:

License:

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Salix scouleriana var. coetanea C.R. Ball:
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Munz, P. A. & D. D. Keck. 1959. Cal. Fl. 1–1681. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

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Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

Localities documented in Tropicos sources

Salix scouleriana Barratt ex Hook.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

References:

Anonymous. 1986. List-Based Rec., Soil Conserv. Serv., U.S.D.A. Database of the U.S.D.A., Beltsville.
Great Plains Flora Association. 1986. Fl. Great Plains i–vii, 1–1392. University Press of Kansas, Lawrence.
Munz, P. A. 1974. Fl. S. Calif. 1–1086. University of California Press, Berkeley.

Source:

License:

http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc/3.0/

Rights Holder:

Missouri Botanical Garden, 4344 Shaw Boulevard, St. Louis, MO 63110 USA

National Distribution

Canada

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

Source:

NatureServe

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Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Morphology

Description

More info for the terms: capsule, dioecious, root crown, shrub, tree

Scouler willow is generally a shrub, reaching 6 to 35 feet (2-10.6 m) in height [8,41,72,109,178,179,204]. It occasionally grows as a tree and may reach 65 feet (20 m) in height [8,32,34,53,76,171,178]. It is nonrhizomatous [218] with a deep, extensive root system [23,24,213,234] and may be multistemmed [23,24,79,204] or have one main trunk with twigs spreading or ascending [53]. It occurs in thickets and forests [202] forming a tall shrub layer in young stands [7,40], but is intolerant of shade and can persist only under thin canopies [7]. Beneath a tree canopy, Scouler willow exhibits a tall, upright growth form [72,218,234], but if top-killed by disturbance it sprouts from the root crown creating a round growth form up to 16 feet (4.8 m) in diameter [234].

Scouler willow has slender stems and branches [72] reaching 4 to 8 inches (10-20 cm) in diameter at the base [9,33,80]; smooth to flaky bark; and glabrous twigs [72]. Leaves are glabrous to leathery, obovate to oblanceolate, and occasionally serrate [9,54,72,109,121,194]. Twigs and leaf undersides of Scouler willow are densely to thinly pubescent, with appressed, reddish hairs [8,10,33,72,121]. Young twigs and vigorous shoots are often densely pubescent, while older stems are smooth [9,121,194]. Stripped bark of Scouler willow has a skunky odor [33,54,121].

A dioecious plant, Scouler willow has large, single-scaled, floral winter buds [10,32,89], and lacks a terminal bud [89]. Aments, expanding before or with leaves and quickly deciduous [32,121], are usually sessile or borne on a short spur shoot and flower profusely [9,10]. Fruiting catkins are 0.8 to 2.4 inches long (2-6 cm) by 0.4 to 0.6 inches thick (1-1.5 cm) with dark floral bracts 4-5 mm long, one gland, and a capsule 5-8 mm long with dense, short hairs and a somewhat long beak [32,33,54,121,194].

References:

7. Antos, Joseph Avery. 1977. Grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes) forests of the Swan Valley, Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 220 p. Thesis. [6720]
8. Argus, George W. 1957. The willows of Wyoming. University of Wyoming Publications. 21(1). Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Publications in Science. 63 p. [4962]
9. Argus, George W. 1973. The genus Salix in Alaska and the Yukon. Publications in Botany, No. 2. Ottowa, ON: National Museums of Canada, National Museum of Natural Sciences. 279 p. [6167]
10. Argus, George W. 1988. Salix scouleriana (Salicaceae) discovered in Mexico. Madrono. 35(4): 350-352. [6861]
23. Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G.; Ayers, Dayna M. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 256-259. [36098]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
32. Brinkman, Kenneth A. 1974. Salix L. willow. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 746-750. [5412]
33. Brunsfeld, Steven J.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1985. Field guide to the willows of east-central Idaho. Bulletin Number 39. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho; College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences; Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 82 p. [6175]
34. Buchanan, Hayle; Biswell, Harold H.; Gibbens, Robert P. 1966. Succession of vegetation in a cut-over Sierra redwood forest. Utah Academy Proceedings. 43(Part 1): 43-48. [16543]
41. Cholewa, Anita F.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1983. Secondary succession in the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus association. Northwest Science. 57(4): 273-282. [11402]
53. Dorn, Robert D. 1970. The willows of Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Department of Botany and Microbiology. 18 p. [6176]
54. Dorn, Robert D.; Dorn, Jane L. 1997. Rocky Mountain Region willow identification field guide. R2-RR-97-01. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Renewable Resources. 107 p. [29146]
72. Froiland, Sven G. 1962. The genus Salix (Willows) in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 75 p. [5992]
76. Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. Vegetation response to helicopter logging and broadcast burning in Douglas-fir habitat types at Silver Creek, central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-405. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 24 p. [6810]
79. Goodrich, Sherel. 1992. Field key to Salix of Utah based on vegetative features. In: Landis, Thomas D., technical coordinator. Proceedings, Intermountain Forest Nursery Association; 1991 August 12-16; Park City, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-211. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 71-73. [20927]
80. Goodrich, Sherel. 1992. Summary flora of riparian shrub communities of the Intermountain region with emphasis on willows. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 62-67. [19097]
89. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement FRDA Rep. 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18034]
109. Johnson, Carl M. 1970. Common native trees of Utah. Special Report 22. Logan, UT: Utah State University, College of Natural Resources, Agricultural Experiment Station. 109 p. [9785]
121. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Hopkins, William E.; Brunsfeld, Steven J. 1988. Major indicator shrubs and herbs in riparian zones on national forests of central Oregon. R6-ECOL-TP-005-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 159 p. [8995]
171. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
178. Newsholme, Christopher. 1992. Willows: The genus Salix. Portland, OR: Timber Press, Inc. 224 p. [20107]
179. Noste, Nonan V.; Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Fire response of shrubs of dry forest habitat types in Montana and Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-239. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 22 p. [255]
194. Porter, Glen L. 1990. Willow species of disturbed sites in the sub-boreal spruce zone in north-central British Columbia. FRDA Handbook 004; ISSN-0835-1929. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada; Victoria, BC: B.C. Ministry of Forests. 67 p. [28015]
202. Rosie, Rhonda. 1991. Range extensions and rare vascular plants from southeastern Yukon Territory. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 105(3): 315-324. [18205]
204. Sampson, Arthur W.; Jespersen, Beryl S. 1963. California range brushlands and browse plants. Berkeley, CA: University of California, Division of Agricultural Sciences, California Agricultural Experiment Station, Extension Service. 162 p. [3240]
213. Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: Murphy, P. M., compiler. The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's Association conference; 1983 August 8-11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6-15. [6850]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
234. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1995. Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 23 p. [29363]
40. Cholewa, Anita F. 1977. Successional relationships of vegetational composition to logging, burning, and grazing in the Douglas-fir/Physocarpus habitat type of northern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 65 p. [+ appendices]. Thesis. [29853]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Habitat

Habitat characteristics

More info for the terms: cover, frequency, shrub, tree

Scouler willow has a wide range of adaptation [39]. It is found in drier habitats than most willows [72], occurring as scattered individuals on dry uplands as well as swamps, and mountain streams [8,33,107,108,121,129,179,200], and is capable of establishing in dry rocky conditions at high elevations [39]. Scouler willow commonly grows on gentle to moderate slopes [40,41,128]. While it does occur in riparian areas, Scouler willow is more common on upland sites above riparian areas [80,90,146,195], and is found primarily in forests, meadows, on slopes [54,193], and in transitional zones between riparian and upland areas [149].

Scouler willow may be found rarely on wet areas, but more commonly on moist areas or intermittent watercourses, and establishes both within gullies and at their bases [20,63,81,120,129]. In riparian areas, Scouler willow establishes on relatively stable banks and lower sideslopes in valleys, reflecting a preferred environment of transport rather than retention of materials and moisture [63,212].

Scouler willow is found on shallow to moderately deep soils [19,23,40,166]. It exhibits tolerance to a range of soil moisture conditions [38], occurring on moderately- to well-drained soils [38,41,54,80,166,180,185,193]. Scouler willow commonly occurs on stony and silty soil with upper soil horizons dry during most of the growing season [63], and Forsyth [70] found that the cover of Scouler willow was greater at intermediate soil moisture levels than at either extreme. Soils on Scouler willow sites ranges from fine textured to gravelly [29,38,90,155,185,194,204]. It is commonly found on a variety of depositional land forms, including gravel bars [67]; glacial till; morainal blankets; river terraces; pumice flows; and alluvial, colluvial, and lacustrine deposits [7,55,152,155,185,189]. Parent materials are derived from a broad range of materials [19,23,174], but appear to be of little significance in distribution [125]. Scarification of the soil surface provides mineral soil important for Scouler willow establishment [87].

The elevational range of Scouler willow includes sea level to over 10,000 feet (3000 m) [4,8,10,11,19,20,23,29,33,42,51,53,54,60,63,72,129,149,174,205,244,249,260]. Scouler willow is found in the lower and upper montane elevational belts in the northwest U.S. [4,33,51,96,260] and higher elevations in the southwest [10,129,149,244,249]. Annual precipitation on these sites may range from 9.5 to 63 inches (240-1600 mm) [4,7,19,23,29,42].

In British Columbia, Scouler willow prefers drier, low elevation sites; mid- to lower slopes with rolling terrain and level to moderately sloping [90,194]. In the western U.S., it is most common in upland forests, cut-over areas, and burned areas in drier locations [53]. The range of Scouler willow stretches from valley bottoms to the lower subalpine forest zone in Idaho. At the low to mid-elevations it grows in moist riparian habitats and generally attains a small tree stature; at the higher elevations it becomes a medium to large shrub and tends to inhabit relatively drier sites [33]. It may occur more frequently on north- and east-facing slopes in the western U.S. [72,125,129,174]; Irwin and Peek [106] found that maximum height growth of Scouler willow in Idaho shrubfields occurred on east facing slopes. However, Mueggler [171] found that frequency and cover were not substantially related to aspect. Quaking aspen/Scouler willow communities in the Intermountain Region range from 5,800 to 7,400 feet (1,800-2,300 m) in elevation [174]. Distribution of Scouler willow in the southern part of its range may be somewhat restricted to montane riparian zones or other moist sites at high elevations [101,112,149,204,205,249], though in the southwest, Scouler willow occurs in mixed conifer forests on steep relatively dry slopes [10] and in low elevation canyons [113]. In California it may also grow from near sea level to 10,000 feet (3048 m) [204]. In northern Mexico, it has been found in the mountains on north-facing aspects [11].

Scouler willow is common in open areas following disturbance [165,178] and readily sprouts in ravines and on roadsides [47]. Its limited shade tolerance, tall growth habit, and sprouting ability enable it to persist in small openings on timbered sites [171,218,226]. Scouler willow occurrence increases with full sunlight [70,172]; Mueggler [171] found that the frequency and crown cover of Scouler willow was substantially higher under tree cover less than 25% than under tree cover exceeding 41%. Hungerford [103] found that maximum height of Scouler willow coincides with 40 to 50% of available light during canopy development. As a result of logging and slash burning in Douglas-fir/ponderosa pine forests in Montana, Scouler willow became established in direct proportion to the amount of stand opening and ground disturbance [53].

References:

4. Agee, James K.; Kertis, Jane. 1987. Forest types of the North Cascades National Park Service Complex. Canadian Journal of Botany. 65: 1520-1530. [6327]
129. Larson, Milo; Moir, W. H. 1987. Forest and woodland habitat types (plant associations) of northern New Mexico and northern Arizona. 2d ed. Albuquerque, NM: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southwestern Region. 90 p. [8947]
7. Antos, Joseph Avery. 1977. Grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes) forests of the Swan Valley, Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 220 p. Thesis. [6720]
8. Argus, George W. 1957. The willows of Wyoming. University of Wyoming Publications. 21(1). Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Publications in Science. 63 p. [4962]
10. Argus, George W. 1988. Salix scouleriana (Salicaceae) discovered in Mexico. Madrono. 35(4): 350-352. [6861]
11. Argus, George W. 1989. Salix scouleriana J. Barratt ex Hook. (Salicaceae) in Sonora, Mexico. Madrono. 36(2): 135. [9242]
19. Ayers, Dayna M.; Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a shelterwood harvest and prescribed burn in western Montana. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(3): 137-143. [30346]
20. Bailey, Warren Hutchinson. 1963. Revegetation in the 1914-1915 devastated area of Lassen Volcanic National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 195 p. Dissertation. [29203]
23. Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G.; Ayers, Dayna M. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 256-259. [36098]
29. Blank, Robert R.; Zamudio, Desiderio C. 1998. The influence of wildfire on aqueous-extractable soil solutes in forested and wet meadow ecosystems along the eastern front of the Sierra-Nevada range, California. International Journal of Wildland Fire. 8(2): 79-85. [28884]
33. Brunsfeld, Steven J.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1985. Field guide to the willows of east-central Idaho. Bulletin Number 39. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho; College of Forestry, Wildlife and Range Sciences; Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 82 p. [6175]
38. Chan, Franklin J. 1993. Response of revegetation on a severely disturbed decomposed granitic site. In: Sommarstrom, Sari, ed. Proceedings of the conference on decomposed granitic soils: problems and solutions; 1992 October 21-23. Redding, CA; University of California, Davis, University Extension: 140-151. [27532]
39. Chan, Franklin J.; Wong, Raymond M. 1989. Reestablishment of native riparian species at an altered high elevation site. In: Abell, Dana L., technical coordinator. Proceedings of the California riparian systems conference: Protection, management, and restoration for the 1990's; 1988 September 22-24; Davis, CA. Gen. Tech. Rep. PSW-110. Berkeley, CA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Southwest Forest and Range Experiment Station: 428-435. [13771]
41. Cholewa, Anita F.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1983. Secondary succession in the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus association. Northwest Science. 57(4): 273-282. [11402]
42. Christianson, Steven P.; Adams, David L.; Grahm, Russell T. 1984. First season survival and growth of Douglas-fir planted in north Idaho shrubfields. Tech. Rep. 16. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 6 p. [7256]
47. Crane, M. F.; Habeck, James R.; Fischer, William C. 1983. Early postfire revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [710]
51. Densmore, Roseann; Zasada, John. 1983. Seed dispersal and dormancy patterns in northern willows: ecological and evolutionary significance. Canadian Journal of Botany. 61: 3207-3216. [5027]
53. Dorn, Robert D. 1970. The willows of Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Department of Botany and Microbiology. 18 p. [6176]
54. Dorn, Robert D.; Dorn, Jane L. 1997. Rocky Mountain Region willow identification field guide. R2-RR-97-01. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Renewable Resources. 107 p. [29146]
55. Douglas, George W. 1974. Montane zone vegetation of the Alsek River region, southwestern Yukon. Canadian Journal of Botany. 52: 2505-2532. [17283]
60. Edge, W. Daniel; Marcum, C. Les; Olson-Edge, Sally L. 1988. Summer forage and feeding site selection by elk. Journal of Wildlife Management. 52(4): 573-577. [6778]
63. Evenden, Angela G. 1989. Ecology and distribution of riparian vegetation in the Trout Creek Mountains of southeastern Oregon. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 156 p. Dissertation. [10231]
67. Fonda, R. W. 1974. Forest succession in relation to river terrace development in Olympic National Park, Washington. Ecology. 55(5): 927-942. [6746]
70. Forsythe, Warren Louis. 1975. Site influence on the post-fire composition of a Rocky Mountain forest. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 173 p. Dissertation. [6723]
72. Froiland, Sven G. 1962. The genus Salix (Willows) in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 75 p. [5992]
80. Goodrich, Sherel. 1992. Summary flora of riparian shrub communities of the Intermountain region with emphasis on willows. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 62-67. [19097]
81. Graham, Dean Chalmus. 1978. Grizzly bear distribution, use of habitats, food habits and habitat characterization in Pelican & Hayden Valleys, Yellowstone National Park. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 124 p. M.S. thesis. [5165]
87. Gruell, George E.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Arno, Stephen F.; Reich, William J. 1982. Seventy years of vegetative change in a managed ponderosa pine forest in western Montana--implications for resource management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-130. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 42 p. [3604]
101. Holstein, Glen. 1984. California riparian forests: deciduous islands in an evergreen sea. In: Warner, Richard E.; Hendrix, Kathleen M., eds. California riparian systems: Ecology, conservation, and productive management: Proceedings of a conference; 1981 September 17-19; Davis, CA. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press: 2-22. [5830]
103. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]
106. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1979. Shrub production and biomass trends following five logging treatments within the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Forest Science. 25(3): 415-426. [16511]
107. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1983. Elk habitat use relative to forest succession in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 47(3): 664-672. [12893]
108. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1983. Elk, Cervus elaphus, foraging related to forest management and succession in Idaho. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 97(4): 443-447. [16524]
112. Kartesz, John T. 1994. A synonymized checklist of the vascular flora of the United States, Canada, and Greenland. Volume I--checklist. 2nd ed. Portland, OR: Timber Press. 622 p. [23877]
113. Kaufmann, Merrill R.; Huckaby, Laurie S.; Regan, Claudia M.; Popp, John. 1998. Forest reference conditions for ecosystem management in the Sacramento Mountains, New Mexico. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-19. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station. 87 p. [29128]
120. Kovalchik, Bernard L. 1992. Growth and yield of willows in central Oregon compared to reports in world literature. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 83-88. [19100]
121. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Hopkins, William E.; Brunsfeld, Steven J. 1988. Major indicator shrubs and herbs in riparian zones on national forests of central Oregon. R6-ECOL-TP-005-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 159 p. [8995]
125. Langenheim, Jean H. 1962. Vegetation and environmental patterns in the Crested Butte Area, Gunnison County, Colorado. Ecological Monographs. 32(3): 249-285. [18482]
128. Larsen, J. A. 1940. Site factor variations and responses in temporary forest types in northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 10(1): 1-54. [12933]
146. Machida, Steven. 1979. Differential use of willow species by moose in Alaska. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska. 97 p. Thesis. [15098]
149. Manning, Mary E.; Padgett, Wayne G. 1989. Preliminary riparian community type classification for Nevada. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 135 p. Preliminary draft. [11531]
152. McNeil, Robert C.; Zobel, Donald B. 1980. Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine-white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park. Northwest Science. 54(1): 30-46. [166]
155. Meidinger, D.; Lewis, T.; Kowall, R. 1986. Biogeoclimatic zones and subzones of the northern portion of the Mackenzie Timber Supply Area, British Columbia. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project: Northern Mackenzie Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 44 p. [9204]
165. Mitchell, John E.; Rodgers, Richard T. 1985. Food habits and distribution of cattle on a forest and pasture range in northern Idaho. Journal of Range Management. 38(3): 214-220. [14430]
166. Moir, W. H. 1993. Alpine tundra and coniferous forest. In: Dick-Peddie, William A., ed. New Mexico vegetation: Past, present, and future. Albuquerque, NM: University of New Mexico Press: 47-84. [21100]
171. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
172. Mueggler, Walter F. 1965. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 35: 165-185. [4016]
174. Mueggler, Walter F. 1988. Aspen community types of the Intermountain Region. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-250. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 135 p. [5902]
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180. O'Farrell, Thomas P. 1965. Home range and ecology of snowshoe hares in interior Alaska. Journal of Mammalogy. 46(3): 406-418. [25105]
185. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire-ecological relationships for the biogeoclimatic zones of the Cassiar Timber Supply Area. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project, Cassiar Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 172 p. [9202]
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Key Plant Community Associations

More info for the terms: association, forb, series, shrub, tree

With its widespread distribution, Scouler willow occurs in many different
vegetation types, but it is dominant in a small percentage of plant communities
[80,256]. In the northern part of its distribution, Scouler willow is a common understory
component of several forest types, including California fir (Abies magnifica)
[205], larch (Larix occidentalis)/Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)
[73,207], lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta)/white spruce (Picea
glauca) [196],
Engelmann spruce (Picea engelmannii) [73], black spruce (Picea
mariana) [184,253], Douglas-fir [4,25,60,102,126,128,139,144,162,164], lodgepole pine
[25,73,144], grand fir (Abies grandis) [25,151], ponderosa pine
(Pinus ponderosa) [19,24,25,102,126,128,153], subalpine fir (Abies
lasiocarpa) [60], cedar (Thuja spp.)/hemlock (Tsuga spp.) [70], white spruce/hardwood [138,184,260], paper birch (Betula papyrifera)/white spruce
[50], aspen (Populus spp.) and
aspen/conifer stands [122,138,225], spruce (Picea
spp.)/fir (Abies spp.) [210,211,244], birch (Betula spp.)/willow (Salix
spp.) [180], and
spruce/birch/willow [184]. It occupies grassland, low-elevation
forests, and forest ecotones in the northern Rocky Mountains [23]; and occurs in both tree-dominated vegetation in Alaska and the Yukon
Territory as well as in the treeless vegetation of southern coastal Alaska [9].

In the southern part of its distribution, Scouler
willow is a common understory component of spruce/fir [244], Douglas-fir/Engelmann spruce/ponderosa pine
[109], ponderosa pine,
mixed conifer [109,167], Douglas-fir/white fir (Abies
concolor) [95], high-altitude willow [125], montane chaparral [43], and scree forests
[129]. It also occurs occasionally in stands of giant sequoia (Sequoia
gigantea) [118,257].

Though Scouler willow is also known as upland willow
and occupies drier habitats than most willows [54], it occurs in
riparian communities and floodplains in the northwest [9,147,258] and may dominate
early seral vegetation on gravel bars [67]. It is also a characteristic
species of riparian woodlands and scrub in the southwest [95,129,137,248], and occurs in wet meadow vegetation
[29].

Plant Associations:
Scouler willow is commonly
associated with quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides), paper birch, Rocky
Mountain
maple (Acer glabrum), white spruce, common juniper (Juniperus communis),
greyleaf willow (Salix glauca), and American green alder (Alnus
viridis ssp. crispa) [7,73,92,189,245,253]. In Idaho, it is frequently associated with quaking aspen,
water birch (Betula occidentalis), thinleaf alder (Alnus tenuifolia), and black cottonwood
(Populus balsamifera ssp. trichocarpa) overstories at the low to mid-elevations; with aspen, Engelmann spruce, Douglas-fir, or lodgepole pine open
overstories at the higher elevations; and in upland forest openings created by
disturbance [33]. In the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho, Scouler willow is negatively
associated with redstem ceanothus (Ceanothus sanguineus), Utah
honeysuckle (Lonicera utahensis), and elderberry (Sambucus spp.),
but positively associated with thimbleberry (Rubus parviflorus) [171]. It has
specifically been identified in
the following plant associations: white spruce-gray leaved willow-scrub birch (Betula
glandulosa) association, lodgepole pine-scrub birch-lichen association
[154,155], aspen/birch/red-osier dogwood (Cornus sericea)
association [90],

Habitat and Community Types:
Scouler willow is a seral species common in the
following habitat types: Douglas-fir/pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens)
[86],
Pacific silver fir (Abies amabilis)/devil's club (Oplopanax horridus),
Alaska-cedar (Chamaecyparis nootkatensis)/ovalleaf huckleberry (Vaccinium ovalifolium)
[71], grand fir/blue huckleberry (Vaccinium globulare) [75],
subalpine fir/beargrass (Xerophyllum tenax) [218], white fir/prince's
pine (Chimaphila umbellata) [152],
Douglas-fir/white spiraea (Spiraea
betulifolia) [76], grand fir/Rocky mountain maple [78], Douglas-fir/ninebark
(Physocarpus malvaceus) [12,41,247,251,268], Engelmann spruce/myrtle
huckleberry, subalpine fir/forest fleabane (Erigeron eximius), subalpine fir/thimbleberry,
blue spruce (Picea pungens)/red-osier dogwood, white fir/Rocky mountain
maple, white fir/forest fleabane [129], and Engelmann spruce/forest
fleabane [166]. In Montana and Idaho, it is common to many habitat types
in the Douglas-fir, grand fir, and subalpine fir series [46,66,80].

Scouler willow is dominant in the mid-seral, Scouler
willow shrub layer group of the
following habitat types: grand fir (Abies grandis)/blue huckleberry [226],
Douglas-fir/pinegrass [229], Douglas-fir/blue huckleberry [17], Douglas-fir/ninebark
[17,228], Douglas-fir/Rocky mountain maple [227], Douglas-fir/white spirea
[233], subalpine
fir/fool's huckleberry (Menziesia
ferruginea) [17], and grand
fir/mountain maple (Acer glabrum) [228,231]. It may
also dominate seral stands in warm, moderate to dry habitat types of Douglas-fir, grand fir, and
ponderosa pine [222].

Scouler willow occurs in a variety of community
types, which include the lodgepole pine-subalpine fir, quaking aspen-white
spruce, quaking aspen-lodgepole pine-white spruce [185], and
lodgepole pine-white spruce-subalpine fir community types in British Columbia
[186]; and white spruce-russet buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis),
white spruce-quaking aspen-russet buffaloberry-twinflower (Linnaea borealis), and
quaking aspen-bearberry (Arctostaphylos uva-ursi) community types in the Yukon Territory
[55]. Scouler willow occurs as a dominant in the tall mountain shrub
component of the north Idaho seral brushfields
[21,42,56,92,96,97,141,172,181,242,251,262,266]. It is
dominant in the Scouler willow community type in the Yukon, with russet buffaloberry as the most prominent understory shrub [55], and may
dominate other deciduous forest communities in the montane zone of British Columbia
and the Yukon Territory [55,94]. Scouler willow occurs as a dominant
shrub
in aspen stands and in the Salix spp. community type of Wyoming [35,81]. In Nevada, Scouler willow is a dominant
in the Scouler willow/tall forb community type and may dominate the tall forb
undergrowth vegetation type that is transitional from riparian to upland sites
[149]. Scouler willow dominates the Scouler willow
riparian community type in the southwestern United States [248]. It is also a
codominant tree in the
quaking aspen/Scouler
willow community type [63,174].

Classifications describing plant communities in which
Scouler willow is a dominant species are as follows:

Arizona [248,250]

British Columbia [119]

California [99]

Idaho [174,226,227,228,229,231,232,233]

Nevada [149,174]

New Mexico [248,250]

Utah [174]

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184. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire history and fire ecology in the Prince Rupert Forest region. In: Trowbridge, R. L.; Macadam, A., eds. Prescribed fire--forest soils: Symposium proceedings; 1982 March 2-3; Smithers, BC. Land Management Report Number 16. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests: 1-35. [8849]
185. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire-ecological relationships for the biogeoclimatic zones of the Cassiar Timber Supply Area. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project, Cassiar Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 172 p. [9202]
186. Parminter, John. 1984. Fire-ecological relationships for the biogeoclimatic zones of the northern portion of the Mackenzie Timber Supply Area. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project: Northern Mackenzie Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 102 p. [9206]
189. Peck, V. Ross; Peek, James M. 1991. Elk, Cervus elaphus, habitat use related to prescribed fire, Tuchodi River, British Columbia. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 105(3): 354-362. [18204]
196. Prescott, Cindy E.; Corbin, John P.; Parkinson, Dennis. 1992. Availability of nitrogen and phosphorus in the forest floors of Rocky Mountain coniferous forests. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 22: 593-600. [18669]
205. Sawyer, John O.; Thornburgh, Dale A. 1977. Montane and subalpine vegetation of the Klamath Mountains. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Major, Jack, eds. Terrestrial vegetation of California. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 699-732. [685]
207. Schmidt, Wyman C. 1980. Understory vegetation response to harvesting and residue management in a larch/fir forest. In: Environmental consequences of timber harvesting in Rocky Mountain coniferous forests: Symposium proceedings; 1979 September 11-13; Missoula, MT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-90. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 221-248. [10305]
210. Scrivner, Jerry H.; Smith, H. Duane. 1981. Pocket gophers (Thomomys talpoides) in successional stages of spruce-fir forest in Idaho. The Great Basin Naturalist. 41(3): 362-367. [7900]
211. Scrivner, Jerry H.; Smith, H. Duane. 1984. Relative abundance of small mammals in four successional stages of spruce-fir forest in Idaho. Northwest Science. 58(3): 171-175. [14881]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
222. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]
225. Stauffer, Dean F.; Peterson, Steven R. 1985. Ruffed and blue grouse habitat use in southeastern Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 49(2): 459-466. [9639]
226. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1987. The grand fir/blue huckleberry habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-228. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 66 p. [8133]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
228. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]
229. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1990. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: Succession and management. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 155 p. Review draft. [15764]
231. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1992. The grand fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-284. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90 p. [17791]
232. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1993. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-298. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 83 p. [21512]
233. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1994. The Douglas-fir/white spirea habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-305. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 81 p. [23481]
242. Stickney, Peter F. 1990. Early development of vegetation following holocaustic fire in Northern Rocky Mountains. Northwest Science. 64(5): 243-246. [12715]
244. Stromberg, Julie C.; Patten, Duncan T. 1991. Dynamics of the spruce-fir forests on the Pinaleno Mountains, Graham Co., Arizona. The Southwestern Naturalist. 36(1): 37-48. [14878]
245. Strothman, R. O.; Zasada, Z. A. 1957. Silvical characteristics of quaking aspen (Populus tremuloides). Station Paper No. 49. St. Paul, MN: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Lake States Forest Experiment Station. 28 p. [16467]
247. Stucker, Donald E.; Peek, James M. 1984. Response of bighorn sheep to the Ship Island Burn. Report submitted to the Northern Forest Fire Laboratory: Supplement No. INT-80-108CA. 33 p. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17070]
248. Szaro, Robert C. 1989. Riparian forest and scrubland community types of Arizona and New Mexico. Desert Plants. 9(3-4): 70-138. [604]
250. Szaro, Robert C.; Patton, David R. 1986. Riparian habitat classification in the southwestern United States. Transactions of the 51st North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference: 215-221. [3516]
251. Tonn, Jonalea R.; Graham, Russell T. 1982. The effect of brush competition and plastic mulch on moisture stress of planted Douglas-fir. INT-320. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 3 p. [7500]
253. Viereck, L. A.; Dyrness, C. T. 1979. Ecological effects of the Wickersham Dome Fire near Fairbanks, Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-90. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 71 p. [6392]
256. Watson, L. E.; Parker, R. W.; Polster, D. F. 1980. Manual of plant species suitability for reclamation in Alberta. Vol. 2: Forbs, shrubs and trees. RRTAC 80-5. Edmonton, AB: Land Conservation and Reclamation Council. 537 p. [8855]
257. Weatherspoon, C. Philip. 1990. Sequoiadendron giganteum (Lindl.) Buchholz. In: Burns, Russell M.; Honkala, Barbara H., technical coordinators. Silvics of North America. Volume 1. Conifers. Agric. Handb. 654. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 552-562. [13415]
258. Weaver, J. E. 1917. A study of the vegetation of southeastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. Nebraska University Studies. 17(1): 1-133. [7153]
260. Weixelman, David A.; Bowyer, R. Terry; Van Ballenberghe, Victor. 1998. Diet selection by Alaskan moose during winter: effects of fire and forest succession. In: Ballard, W. B.; Rodgers, A. R. J., eds. Proceedings, 33rd North American moose conference and workshop; 4th international moose symposium; 1997 May 17-23; Fairbanks, AK. In: Alces. 34(1): 213-238. [30325]
262. Wittinger, W. T.; Pengelly, W. L.; Irwin, L. L.; Peek, J. M. 1977. A 20-year record of shrub succession in logged areas in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Northwest Science. 51(3): 161-171. [6828]
266. Yurich, Steve. 1974. Environmental Statement: Final. Big game improvement: Burning of seral brushfields in the Clearwater and Spokane River drainages of Idaho. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Northern Region. 45+ p. [4083]
268. Zimmerman, G. T.; Neuenschwander, L. F. 1984. Livestock grazing influences on community structure, fire intensity, and fire frequency within the Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type. Journal of Range Management. 37(2): 104-110. [10103]
12. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. [n.d.]. The effect of fire intensity on understory vegetational development. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 17 p. [30855]
71. Franklin, Jerry F.; Moir, William H.; Hemstrom, Miles A.; [and others]. 1988. The forest communities of Mount Rainier National Park. Scientific Monograph Series No 19. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 194 p. [12393]
90. Haeussler, S.; Pojar, J.; Geisler, B. M.; [and others]. 1985. A guide to the interior cedar-hemlock zone, northwestern transitional subzone (ICHg), in the Prince Rupert Forest Region, British Columbia. Land Management Report Number 26; ISSN 0702-9861. Victoria, BC: British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 263 p. [6930]
96. Hessberg, Paul F.; Smith, Bradley G.; Kreiter, Scott D.; [and others]. 1999. Historical and current forest and range landscapes in the interior Columbia River basin and portions of the Klamath and Great Basins. Part 1: Linking vegetation patterns and landscape vulnerability to potential insect and pathogen disturbances. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-458. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station; Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 357 p. (Quigley, Thomas, M., ed., Interior Columbia River Basin Ecosystem Management Project: scientific assessment). [35679]

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Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: cover, shrub

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [215]:

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

203 Riparian woodland

209 Montane shrubland

213 Alpine grassland

216 Montane meadows

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

422 Riparian

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

901 Alder

904 Black spruce-lichen

906 Broadleaf forest

912 Low scrub shrub birch-ericaceous

917 Tall shrub swamp

920 White spruce-paper birch

921 Willow

References:

215. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

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License:

Habitat: Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [64]:

201 White spruce

202 White spruce-paper birch

203 Balsam poplar

204 Black spruce

205 Mountain hemlock

206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

207 Red fir

208 Whitebark pine

210 Interior Douglas-fir

211 White fir

212 Western larch

213 Grand fir

215 Western white pine

216 Blue spruce

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

219 Limber pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

221 Red alder

222 Black cottonwood-willow

224 Western hemlock

225 Western hemlock-Sitka spruce

227 Western redcedar-western hemlock

228 Western redcedar

229 Pacific Douglas-fir

230 Douglas-fir-western hemlock

232 Redwood

234 Douglas-fir-tanoak-Pacific madrone

235 Cottonwood-willow

237 Interior ponderosa pine

239 Pinyon-juniper

243 Sierra Nevada mixed conifer

244 Pacific ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir

245 Pacific ponderosa pine

247 Jeffrey pine

248 Knobcone pine

251 White spruce-aspen

252 Paper birch

253 Black spruce-white spruce

254 Black spruce-paper birch

256 California mixed subalpine

References:

64. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

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Habitat: Plant Associations

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

KUCHLER [123] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K001 Spruce-cedar-hemlock forest

K002 Cedar-hemlock-Douglas-fir forest

K003 Silver fir-Douglas-fir forest

K004 Fir-hemlock forest

K005 Mixed conifer forest

K006 Redwood forest

K007 Red fir forest

K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest

K010 Ponderosa shrub forest

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K013 Cedar-hemlock-pine forest

K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest

K015 Western spruce-fir forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K019 Arizona pine forest

K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest

K021 Southwestern spruce-fir forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K025 Alder-ash forest

K028 Mosaic of K002 and K026

K029 California mixed evergreen forest

K034 Montane chaparral

K052 Alpine meadows and barren

K063 Foothills prairie

References:

123. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

Source:

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Habitat: Ecosystem

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [81]:

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES22 Western white pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES24 Hemlock-Sitka spruce

FRES25 Larch

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES27 Redwood

FRES28 Western hardwoods

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper
FRES37 Mountain meadows

References:

81. Graham, Dean Chalmus. 1978. Grizzly bear distribution, use of habitats, food habits and habitat characterization in Pelican & Hayden Valleys, Yellowstone National Park. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University. 124 p. M.S. thesis. [5165]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

General Ecology

Fire Management Considerations

More info for the terms: competition, cover, fire exclusion, fire suppression, frequency, prescribed fire, presence, root crown, shrub, shrubs, wildfire

Prescribed fire is widely used as a wildlife management tool to rejuvenate decadent willow stands and stimulate sprouting. In areas where Scouler willow is scattered through the vegetation and in low vigor due to overbrowsing, prescribed fires that kill aboveground plant parts and expose mineral soils are favorable. This allows existing shrubs to sprout and creates favorable seedbeds for establishment of Scouler willow. In Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat types of Montana, burning during late summer or fall exposes 30 to 50% of mineral soil [87]. A quick, hot fire maximizes sprouting while slower, longer burns cause more extensive damage and reduce browse [89]. The deep root system and multistemmed growth of Scouler willow allows for higher tolerance to disturbance [19], and it establishes rapidly in clearcut and heavily burned areas [61,80]. Scouler willow is favored by conditions on burned areas; it is scarce on areas not subjected to fire but very abundant on broadcast burns [171]. However, broadcast burns do not always burn hot enough to duplicate the effects of severe wildfire and create an adequate seedbed for Scouler willow, which is favored by light soil scarification [150,218,226,227,228,229]. Competition may limit Scouler willow establishment; the frequency and percent cover of Scouler willow were significantly less (p<0.05 and p<0.01 respectively) on a burned, artificially seeded site than on a burned, unseeded site [208].

On sites in northern Idaho, Scouler willow had substantially higher cover on a 30-year-old burn than after any intensive silvicultural treatment (ranging from thinning to clearcut), with no presence in the control [104]. However, after 30 to 40 years of fire exclusion in ponderosa pine forests, Scouler willow presence increased [22]. Logging and fire suppression allowed vigorous development of Scouler willow in a Douglas-fir/ponderosa pine community [87].

Prescribed fire enhances vigorous regrowth and germination of Scouler willow, and it is effective in increasing biomass [24]. In the cedar-hemlock zone of Idaho, it generally produces the most cover of any shrub species on broadcast burned areas. Cover and frequency of Scouler willow is substantially higher on broadcast burns than on areas not broadcast burned, as are the mean height values [171]. Total shrub volume of Scouler willow in Douglas-fir stands increased from 15 to 80% 2 years postfire [139]. Mean canopy coverage of Scouler willow increased significantly (p<0.01) following selective logging and low intensity broadcast burning (intensity ~ 127 kcal/m/s) [12]. In the 1st year following burning, Scouler willow may produce up to 28 times as many sprouts as the previous year [136,162]. Scouler willow may grow significantly wider and taller (p<0.05) after fall burning than after spring burning [136]. However, fall burning removes the following winter's food supply for animals, while spring burns have substantial regrowth by summer [130]. After stand mechanical treatment and understory burning, Scouler willow was reduced by 9% from mechanical damage and an additional 16% from fire. The surviving plants were substantially more vigorous post-treatment [15,16]. While modest Scouler willow mortality may result after overstory removal and prescribed fire, the percentage of high vigor plants increases; in one study the amount of vigorous plants increased from 15% at pretreatment to 70% post treatment [23]. In northern Idaho, burning at 5-year intervals did not result in decreased vigor [135]. Scouler willow was not markedly affected by burning until it suffered deep charring of the root crown. The following table presents the change in Scouler willow population characteristics in response to different treatments (% change is relative to pretreatment conditions) [23]:

Treatment Cover reduction Mortality High vigor plants Control 1 3 15 Harvest only (shelterwood cut) 33 14 60 Low consumption (shelterwood cut and low consumption burn) 62 22 71 High consumption (shelterwood cut and high consumption burn) 58 26 69

Shelterwood cuts combined with prescribed burning in a ponderosa pine resulted in modest Scouler willow mortality; plants remaining in the harvest only and burned treatments had higher vigor than those in the control [19,23].

A summary of Scouler willow's response to different types of disturbance is presented below [228]:

Type of disturbance: Clearcut, no site prep Shelterwood cut, mechanical scarification Clearcut, mechanical scarification Clearcut, broadcast burn Stand destroying wildfire Response: major vegetative response minor vegetative response major vegetative response, minor response from seed major vegetative response, minor response from seed major vegetative response, minor response from seed

References:

15. Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Fiedler, Carl E.; Carlson, Clinton E. 1995. Restoring fire-dependent ponderosa pine forests in western Montana. Restoration and Management Notes. 13(1): 32-36. [27601]
16. Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Fiedler, Carl E.; Carlson, Clinton E. 1998. Using silviculture and prescribed fire to reduce fire hazard and improve health in ponderosa pine forests. In: Close, Kelly; Bartlette, Roberta A., eds. Fire management under fire(adapting to change): Proceedings, 1994 Interior West Fire Council meeting and program; 1994 November 1-4; Coeur d'Alene, ID. Fairfield, WA: Interior West Fire Council: 99-105. [29065]
19. Ayers, Dayna M.; Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a shelterwood harvest and prescribed burn in western Montana. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(3): 137-143. [30346]
22. Barrett, Stephen, W.; Arno, Stephen F. 1982. Indian fires as an ecological influence in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 80(10): 647-651. [12711]
23. Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G.; Ayers, Dayna M. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 256-259. [36098]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
61. Edgerton, Paul J. 1987. Influence of ungulates on the development of the shrub understory of an upper slope mixed conifer forest. In: Provenza, Frederick D.; Flinders, Jerran T.; McArthur, E. Durant, compilers. Proceedings--symposium on plant-herbivore interactions; 1985 August 7-9; Snowbird, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-222. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 162-167. [7411]
80. Goodrich, Sherel. 1992. Summary flora of riparian shrub communities of the Intermountain region with emphasis on willows. In: Clary, Warren P.; McArthur, E. Durant; Bedunah, Don; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings--symposium on ecology and management of riparian shrub communities; 1991 May 29-31; Sun Valley, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-289. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 62-67. [19097]
87. Gruell, George E.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Arno, Stephen F.; Reich, William J. 1982. Seventy years of vegetative change in a managed ponderosa pine forest in western Montana--implications for resource management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-130. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 42 p. [3604]
89. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement FRDA Rep. 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18034]
104. Irwin, Larry L. 1976. Effects of intensive silviculture on big game forage sources in northern Idaho. In: Hieb, S., ed. Proceedings, elk-logging roads symposium. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho: 135-142. [16146]
130. Leege, Thomas A. 1968. Prescribed burning for elk in northern Idaho. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1968 March 14-15; Tallahassee, FL. No 8. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 235-253. [5287]
135. Leege, Thomas A. 1979. Effects of repeated prescribed burns on northern Idaho elk browse. Northwest Science. 53(2): 107-113. [5116]
136. Leege, Thomas A.; Hickey, William O. 1971. Sprouting of northern Idaho shrubs after prescribed burning. Journal of Wildlife Management. 35(3): 508-515. [1437]
139. Lyon, L. Jack. 1966. Initial vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-29. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [1494]
150. Marcum, Les. 1971. Vegetal development on montane fir clearcuts in western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 122 p. Thesis. [36494]
162. Miller, Melanie. 1976. Shrub sprouting response to fire in a Douglas-fir/western larch ecosystem. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 124 p. Thesis. [8945]
171. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
208. Schoennagel, Tania L.; Waller, Donald M. 1999. Understory responses to fire and artificial seedling in an eastern Cascades Abies grandis forest, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 29: 1393-1401. [31097]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
226. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1987. The grand fir/blue huckleberry habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-228. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 66 p. [8133]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
228. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]
229. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1990. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: Succession and management. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 155 p. Review draft. [15764]
12. Armour, Charles D.; Bunting, Stephen C.; Neuenschwander, Leon F. [n.d.]. The effect of fire intensity on understory vegetational development. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 17 p. [30855]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: fire use, prescribed fire, restoration

Lyon's Research Paper (Lyon 1971)
and the following Research Project Summaries provide information on prescribed
fire use and postfire response of plant community species including Scouler willow:

Understory recovery after low- and high-intensity fires in northern Idaho ponderosa pine forests

Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: basal area, cover, density, frequency, root crown, severity, shrub, top-kill, wildfire

Sprouting: Willows sprout quickly after fire if depth of the burn in the soil is low to moderate [93]. When fire is intense enough to kill live foliage but does not kill the vascular cambium, Scouler willow experiences vigorous epicormic sprouting from the root crown [2,3,19,24,30,31,47,76,103,131,134,139,140,142,153,171,172,191,222,226,230,239,247,261]. Root crowns of Scouler willow are often so large that some buds always survive, except when disturbance is really severe [169]. New shoots have been observed growing within days of a fire [69], and rapid sprouting after burning results in low overall plant mortality [19]. Multiple sprouts result in increased Scouler willow density following fire [116]. Scouler willow has a high postfire response rating; the species population will regain its preburn frequency and cover in 5 years or less [195].

Scouler willow increases dramatically following a variety of burn intensities, especially on relatively moist sites [195]. Basal area after 3 years may exceed that on unburned sites [253]. Dramatic increases in volume occur over the first 15 years postfire [239]. Sprout height growth may be dramatic, reaching up to 10 feet (3 m) after the first growing season [46,131,259]. Within 3 years after burning, plant crowns can average over 11 feet (3.4 m) in height [131]. Following a prescribed summer burn in Idaho, nearly 80% of height growth of Scouler willow over a 7-year period was attained within 2 growing seasons [140]. Following a summer wildfire in northern Idaho, Scouler willow reached peak cover values within 8 years [240].

Scouler willow plants that experience severe canopy mortality apparently concentrate their nutrients into vigorous new growth more than plants which experience only light canopy mortality. Analysis of aboveground plant part mortality classes from controlled burns in Idaho revealed that Scouler willow plants which experience top-kill exhibit the most vigorous regrowth. Twig growth (length and weight) of Scouler willow following fire was 3 to 4 times greater on plants with greater than 50% canopy mortality than on plants with less than 50% canopy mortality [183].

Seeding: Scouler willow also has the potential to regenerate from off-site seed sources [30,31,46,86,91,103,172,222,226,239,247,258], and can establish in moist mineral soil postfire [30,31,66,76,222,226]. Sowing Scouler willow seeds on different severity burns in upland black spruce sites in Alaska showed that germination occurred only on moderately (organic layers partially consumed) and severely (ash layer present, organic material in soil consumed or nearly so to mineral soil) burned seedbeds. Severely burned sites had the best germination percentages and represented the only burn severity class where Scouler willow seedlings survived past 3 years [267]. Scouler willow establishes quickly, but the rate of cover development or increase is slow [237,238,240].

Germinating seed originating from off-site plants often raises Scouler willow frequency far above what would be expected from on-site surviving plants [140,145,240]. Stickney [240] observed that after a stand-replacing wildfire in northern Idaho, Scouler willow seedlings made up the majority of the shrub component of the vegetation. The importance of seedlings in the postfire community was similarly observed by Lyon [140]. He recorded the postfire density of Scouler willow plants for 7 years, summarized below (density = # of plants >18 inches (46 cm) tall per 1,000 ft2):

Postfire year Prefire - 1963 1 - 1964 2 - 1965 3 - 1966 4- 1967 5 - 1968 6 - 1969 7 - 1970 Density 0.3 0.1 0.2 0.2 0.6 2.4 3.6 4.4

References:

2. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]
3. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]
19. Ayers, Dayna M.; Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a shelterwood harvest and prescribed burn in western Montana. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(3): 137-143. [30346]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
30. Bradley, Anne F.; Fischer, William C.; Noste, Nonan V. 1992. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of eastern Idaho and western Wyoming. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-290. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 92 p. [19557]
31. Bradley, Anne F.; Noste, Nonan V.; Fischer, William C. 1992. Fire ecology of forests and woodlands of Utah. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-287. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 128 p. [18212]
46. Crane, M. F.; Fischer, William C. 1986. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of central Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-218. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 85 p. [5297]
47. Crane, M. F.; Habeck, James R.; Fischer, William C. 1983. Early postfire revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [710]
66. Fischer, William C.; Bradley, Anne F. 1987. Fire ecology of western Montana forest habitat types. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-223. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 95 p. [633]
69. Foote, M. Joan. 1983. Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-307. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 108 p. [7080]
76. Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. Vegetation response to helicopter logging and broadcast burning in Douglas-fir habitat types at Silver Creek, central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-405. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 24 p. [6810]
86. Gruell, George E.; Brown, James K.; Bushey, Charles L. 1986. Prescribed fire opportunities in grasslands invaded by Douglas-fir: state-of-the-art guidelines. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-198. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 19 p. [1050]
91. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]
103. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]
116. Keay, Jeffrey A.; Peek, James M. 1980. Relationships between fires and winter habitat of deer in Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 44(2): 372-380. [125]
131. Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning seral brush ranges for big game in northern Idaho. Transactions, North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 34: 429-438. [144]
134. Leege, Thomas A. 1978. Changes in browse intercept, production and seedlings after burning--Holly Creek. Job Completion Report No. W-160-R. Elk ecology: Range rehabilitation by spring burning: July 1, 1965 to June 30, 1978. Boise, ID: Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 11 p. [17170]
139. Lyon, L. Jack. 1966. Initial vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-29. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [1494]
140. Lyon, L. Jack. 1971. Vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-105. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 30 p. [1495]
142. Lyon, L. Jack. 1984. The Sleeping Child Burn--21 years of postfire change. Res. Pap. INT-330. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [6328]
145. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
153. McNeil, Robert Curlan. 1975. Vegetation and fire history of a ponderosa pine - white fir forest in Crater Lake National Park. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 171 p. Thesis. [5737]
171. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
172. Mueggler, Walter F. 1965. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 35: 165-185. [4016]
183. Owens, T. E. 1982. Postburn regrowth of shrubs related to canopy mortality. Northwest Science. 56(1): 34-40. [1806]
191. Peek, James. 1985. Bighorn sheep responses to fire. The Habitat Express. No. 85-4. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. 3 p. [5224]
195. Powell, David C. 1994. Effects of the 1980's western spruce budworm outbreak on the Malheur National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Pub. R6-FI&D-TP-12-94. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Natural Resources Staff, Forest Insects and Diseases Group. 176 p. [29717]
222. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]
226. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1987. The grand fir/blue huckleberry habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-228. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 66 p. [8133]
230. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1991. Monitoring the effects of postfire grass seeding on the Lowman Burn. Unpublished first year progress report. 4 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17154]
237. Stickney, Peter F. 1981. Vegetative recovery and development. In: DeByle, Norbert V., ed. Clearcutting and fire in the larch/Douglas-fir forests of western Montana - a multifaceted research summary. Gen, Tech. Rep. INT-99. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 33-37. [34969]
238. Stickney, Peter F. 1982. Vegetation response to clearcutting and broadcast burning on north and south slopes at Newman Ridge. In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 119-124. [18538]
239. Stickney, Peter F. 1985. Data base for early postfire succession on the Sundance Burn, northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-189. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 121 p. [7223]
240. Stickney, Peter F. 1986. First decade plant succession following the Sundance Forest Fire, northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-197. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 26 p. [2255]
247. Stucker, Donald E.; Peek, James M. 1984. Response of bighorn sheep to the Ship Island Burn. Report submitted to the Northern Forest Fire Laboratory: Supplement No. INT-80-108CA. 33 p. On file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [17070]
253. Viereck, L. A.; Dyrness, C. T. 1979. Ecological effects of the Wickersham Dome Fire near Fairbanks, Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-90. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 71 p. [6392]
258. Weaver, J. E. 1917. A study of the vegetation of southeastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. Nebraska University Studies. 17(1): 1-133. [7153]
261. West, Stephen D. 1982. Dynamics of colonization and abundance in central Alaskan populations of the northern red-backed vole, Clethrionomys rutilus. Journal of Mammalogy. 63(1): 128-143. [7300]
267. Zasada, John C.; Norum, Rodney A.; Van Veldhuizen, Robert M.; Teutsch, Christian E. 1983. Artificial regeneration of trees and tall shrubs in experimentally burned upland black spruce/feather moss stands in Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 13: 903-913. [6991]
259. Weaver, Stephen M. 1987. Fire and elk: summer prescription burning on elk winter range, a new direction in Habitat management on the Nez Perce National Forest. Bugle: The Quarterly Journal of the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. 4(2): 41-42. [98]
93. Hawkes, Brad C. 1982. Fire history and ecology of forest ecosystems in Kluane National Park. In: Wein, Ross W.; Riewe, Roderick R.; Methven, Ian R., eds. Resources and dynamics of the Boreal Zone; [Date of conference unknown]; Thunder Bay, ON. [Place of publication unknown]. Association of Canadian Universities for Northern Studies: 266-280. [7444]
169. Morgan, Penelope. 1989. Managing shrub response through site preparation. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Breuer, David W.; Zamora, Benjamin A.; [and others], compilers. Prescribed fire in the Intermountain region: Symposium proceedings; 1986 March 3-5; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 161-165. [11264]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Broad-scale Impacts of Fire

More info for the terms: flame length, prescribed fire

Scouler willow may be resistant to fire, and there is a greater than 65% chance that 50% of the population on a site will survive or immediately reestablish after passage of a fire with an average flame length of 12 inches (30.5 cm) [195]. Mortality of Scouler willow to burning was low in different prescribed fire treatments in Montana ponderosa pine stands [24].

References:

24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
195. Powell, David C. 1994. Effects of the 1980's western spruce budworm outbreak on the Malheur National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Pub. R6-FI&D-TP-12-94. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Natural Resources Staff, Forest Insects and Diseases Group. 176 p. [29717]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Immediate Effect of Fire

More info for the terms: fire severity, severity

Scouler willow is sensitive to fire [121] and may be top-killed [234]. Scouler willow crown mortality following fire can vary from 0 to 100% depending on fire severity [183]. Severe fires that destroy the organic layer may result in 100% aboveground mortality [145]. However, even when aboveground plant parts are destroyed by fire, underground plant parts usually survive.

References:

121. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Hopkins, William E.; Brunsfeld, Steven J. 1988. Major indicator shrubs and herbs in riparian zones on national forests of central Oregon. R6-ECOL-TP-005-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 159 p. [8995]
145. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
183. Owens, T. E. 1982. Postburn regrowth of shrubs related to canopy mortality. Northwest Science. 56(1): 34-40. [1806]
234. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1995. Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 23 p. [29363]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Post-fire Regeneration

More info for the terms: adventitious, initial off-site colonizer, shrub

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [241]:
Tall shrub, adventitious bud/root crown
Initial off-site colonizer (off-site, initial community)

References:

241. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]

Source:

License:

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Fire Ecology

More info for the terms: codominant, cover, density, fuel, hardwood, litter, presence, root crown, shrub, shrubs, succession, tree, wildfire

Willows are greatly favored by fire in most habitats [89,148,253]. As a survivor and off-site colonizer [117,237,241,242,243], Scouler willow is abundant following fire [146] and has a moderate regeneration period [121]. It is adapted to fire by rapidly resprouting from the root crown [145,167,179,216], and establishes from seed on severely burned sites [179]. Wind dispersed seeds facilitate rapid recolonization of burned areas [216,217]. In a north-west Montana study Scouler willow was found on 80% of burned sites with no previous Scouler willow presence [237]. Stand replacing fires favor regeneration of Scouler willow [167], and good response from Scouler willow seedlings can be expected on sites where fire damage is thorough enough to expose mineral soil [87]. However, it is rarely present on sites where more than 50% of the prefire overstory remains [70].

Scouler willow layer groups are distinct shrub layers that occur in various habitat types and are created by stand replacing fires [218,227,228,229,231]. Severe wildfires expose patches of bare mineral soil, encouraging the development of Scouler willow shrub layers [229,231]. These layer groups may also develop in response to mechanical scarification in clearcuts and broadcast burns, especially where exposed soil was mounded to trap water behind the mounds, creating well-watered seedbeds of mineral soil [229,231,233].

Scouler willow is frequently a dominant or codominant in the persistent seral brushfields of northern Idaho. These brushfields are likely the result of dry weather patterns after canopy removal and repeated severe fires, which remove most large woody material, litter, and herbaceous fuels. Standing shrubs comprise most of the biomass, and these brushfields can burn in almost any season. If surface fuels are continuous and dry, spring fires spread readily. In the summer, brushfields are often hot and dry, and conditions are exacerbated where nighttime inversions occur. Hot, dry winds during drought conditions can drive severe fires through the shrub layer, with Scouler willow readily regenerating from seed and sprouting [222].

In interior Alaska, Foote [69] identified six community developmental stages following fire in black spruce forests. These are: 1) newly burned, 2) moss-herb, 3) tall shrub-sapling, 4) dense tree, 5) hardwood or mixed hardwood-spruce, and 6) black spruce. Arising from sprouts, Scouler willow can average up to a few thousand stems per hectare 1 year following wildfire depending on preburn density, and thus is an important part of the newly burned stage. It is then often dominant or co-dominant through the tall shrub-sapling stage of succession for about 30 years. It thereafter becomes less frequent, as larger trees outgrow and overtop it.

Sprouting occurs in response to overstory thinning [217] where Scouler willow is well-distributed and in need of rejuvenation [87]. Generally, fast spreading fires produce more willow sprouts than slow fires that can damage root crowns [222]. Density and canopy coverage frequently increase after fire because root crowns produce multiple sprouts [179]. Four years postfire in Alaska, Scouler willow presence was 4 times greater on burned sites than on adjacent unburned sites [253]. In northern Idaho, Scouler willow cover was much higher on burned clearcuts than on unburned clearcuts, particularly where there had been repeated fires over a 30 year period [172]. Postfire immature stands (<90 years) in Montana have significantly more (p<0.05) presence and percent cover of Scouler willow than old growth stands (>150 years) [5]. The increased presence of Scouler willow in Douglas-fir/ponderosa pine stands following elimination of frequent fires is likely the result of stand opening associated with logging [19]. Sprouting Scouler willow creates a round growth form up to 16 feet in diameter and may as a result promote reestablishment of shade tolerant species like Douglas-fir, in turn posing a greater risk of stand replacing fires and favoring growth of Scouler willow [234].

Without fire, closing conifer canopies lead to the deterioration of Scouler willow [84]. In dense second growth stands of sequoia in California, Scouler willow debris creates a fuel hazard; formerly abundant stands of Scouler willow grew in dense clones that were shaded out and killed, forming dense tangles of fuel for wildfire [28].

FIRE REGIMES for plant communities and ecosystems in which Scouler willow occurs are summarized below. For further information regarding FIRE REGIMES and fire ecology of communities where Scouler willow is found, see the "Fire Ecology and Adaptations" section of the FEIS species summary for the plant community or ecosystem dominants listed below.

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) silver fir-Douglas-fir Abies amabilis-Pseudotsuga menziesii var. menziesii > 200 grand fir A. grandis 35-200 [14] California montane chaparral Ceanothus and/or Arctostaphylos spp. 50-100 Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum < 35 [188] western larch Larix occidentalis 25-100 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to > 200 [14] black spruce P. mariana 35-200 conifer bog* P. m.-Larix laricina 35-200 [57] blue spruce* P. pungens 35-200 [14] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 188] whitebark pine* P. albicaulis 50-200 [14] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* P. contorta var. latifolia 25-300+ [13,14,201] Sierra lodgepole pine* P. c. var. murrayana 35-200 Jeffrey pine P. jeffreyi 5-30 western white pine* P. monticola 50-200 Pacific ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 Rocky Mountain ponderosa pine* P. p. var. scopulorum 2-10 Arizona pine P. p. var. arizonica 2-10 [14] aspen-birch Populus tremuloides-Betula papyrifera 35-200 [57,255] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) P. t. 7-120 [14,83,156] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [13,14] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [14] coastal Douglas-fir* P. m. var. menziesii 40-240 [14,170,199] California mixed evergreen P. m. var. m.-Lithocarpus densiflorus-Arbutus menziesii < 35 [14] redwood Sequoia sempervirens 5-200 [14,65,246] western redcedar-western hemlock Thuja plicata-Tsuga heterophylla > 200 western hemlock-Sitka spruce T. h.-Picea sitchensis > 200 mountain hemlock* T. mertensiana 35 to > 200 [14] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary
**mean

References:

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19. Ayers, Dayna M.; Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a shelterwood harvest and prescribed burn in western Montana. Western Journal of Applied Forestry. 14(3): 137-143. [30346]
28. Biswell, H. H.; Gibbens, R. P.; Buchanan, Hayle. 1968. Fuel conditions and fire hazard reduction costs in a giant sequoia forest. National Parks Magazine. August: 17-19. [8785]
57. Duchesne, Luc C.; Hawkes, Brad C. 2000. Fire in northern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 35-51. [36982]
65. Finney, Mark A.; Martin, Robert E. 1989. Fire history in a Sequoia sempervirens forest at Salt Point State Park, California. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 19: 1451-1457. [9845]
69. Foote, M. Joan. 1983. Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-307. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 108 p. [7080]
70. Forsythe, Warren Louis. 1975. Site influence on the post-fire composition of a Rocky Mountain forest. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 173 p. Dissertation. [6723]
83. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. [3862]
84. Gruell, George E. 1984. To burn or not to burn: A wildlife management dilemma. Western Wildlands. 10(3): 9-15. [18521]
87. Gruell, George E.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Arno, Stephen F.; Reich, William J. 1982. Seventy years of vegetative change in a managed ponderosa pine forest in western Montana--implications for resource management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-130. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 42 p. [3604]
89. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement FRDA Rep. 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18034]
117. Keller, Marilyn Crane. 1980. Post-fire recovery within ravine forest communities of Pattee Canyon, Missoula, Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 136 p. Thesis. [6725]
121. Kovalchik, Bernard L.; Hopkins, William E.; Brunsfeld, Steven J. 1988. Major indicator shrubs and herbs in riparian zones on national forests of central Oregon. R6-ECOL-TP-005-88. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 159 p. [8995]
145. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
146. Machida, Steven. 1979. Differential use of willow species by moose in Alaska. Fairbanks, AK: University of Alaska. 97 p. Thesis. [15098]
148. Makela, Paul D. 1990. Effects of prescribed burning on the Burdette Creek winter range. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 112 p. Thesis. [20681]
156. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]
167. Moir, William H.; Geils, Brian; Benoit, Mary Ann; Scurlock, Dan. 1997. Ecology of southwestern ponderosa pine forests. In: Block, William M.; Finch, Deborah M., tech. eds. Songbird ecology in southwestern ponderosa pine forests: a literature review. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-292. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 3-27. [27985]
170. Morrison, Peter H.; Swanson, Frederick J. 1990. Fire history and pattern in a Cascade Range landscape. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-254. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 77 p. [13074]
172. Mueggler, Walter F. 1965. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 35: 165-185. [4016]
179. Noste, Nonan V.; Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Fire response of shrubs of dry forest habitat types in Montana and Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-239. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 22 p. [255]
199. Ripple, William J. 1994. Historic spatial patterns of old forests in western Oregon. Journal of Forestry. 92(11): 45-49. [33881]
201. Romme, William H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forests of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs. 52(2): 199-221. [9696]
216. Shiplett, Brian; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1994. Fire ecology in the cedar-hemlock zone of North Idaho. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James E.; Tonn, Jonalea R., compiler. Interior cedar-hemlock-white pine forests: ecology and management: Symposium proceedings; 1993 March 2-4; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Natural Resources: 41-51. [25789]
217. Simmerman, Dennis G.; Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Graham, Russell T. 1991. A comparison of dry and moist fuel underburns in ponderosa pine shelterwood units in Idaho. In: Andrews, Patricia L.; Potts, Donald F., eds. Proceedings, 11th annual conference on fire and forest meteorology; 1991 April 16-19; Missoula, MT. SAF Publication 91-04. Bethesda, MD: Society of American Foresters: 387-397. [16186]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
222. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
228. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]
229. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1990. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: Succession and management. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 155 p. Review draft. [15764]
231. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1992. The grand fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-284. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90 p. [17791]
233. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1994. The Douglas-fir/white spirea habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-305. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 81 p. [23481]
234. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1995. Major Douglas-fir habitat types of central Idaho: a summary of succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-331. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 23 p. [29363]
237. Stickney, Peter F. 1981. Vegetative recovery and development. In: DeByle, Norbert V., ed. Clearcutting and fire in the larch/Douglas-fir forests of western Montana - a multifaceted research summary. Gen, Tech. Rep. INT-99. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 33-37. [34969]
241. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. FEIS postfire regeneration workshop--April 12: Seral origin of species comprising secondary plant succession in Northern Rocky Mountain forests. 10 p. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [20090]
242. Stickney, Peter F. 1990. Early development of vegetation following holocaustic fire in Northern Rocky Mountains. Northwest Science. 64(5): 243-246. [12715]
243. Stickney, Peter F. 1991. Effects of fire on flora: Northern Rocky Mountain forest plants. Unpublished paper on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experimental Station, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [21628]
246. Stuart, John D. 1987. Fire history of an old-growth forest of Sequoia sempervirens (Taxodiaceae) forest in Humboldt Redwoods State Park, California. Madrono. 34(2): 128-141. [7277]
253. Viereck, L. A.; Dyrness, C. T. 1979. Ecological effects of the Wickersham Dome Fire near Fairbanks, Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-90. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 71 p. [6392]
188. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
255. Wade, Dale D.; Brock, Brent L.; Brose, Patrick H.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in eastern ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 53-96. [36983]

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Successional Status

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: climax, competition, cover, fire intensity, frequency, prescribed fire, presence, reburn, shrub, succession, tree, wildfire

Scouler willow is a shade intolerant, persistent seral species [17,55,104,238]. It is often a minor understory component in a variety of forest types [5,43,44,45,59,68,72,76,77,85,95,110,163,185,258,260], occurring as scattered individuals in small openings. However, it increases after disturbance, including clearcutting, prescribed fire, soil disturbance, and wildfire [1,5,9,17,47,53,61,70,71,72,89,106,138,145,150,171,194,222].

Scouler willow is an early to mid-seral species [43,44,73,84,85,94,102,103,127,132,145,184,185,198,218,236]. Where not already present, it rapidly invades disturbed sites [24,45,91,214,238] facilitated by its wind-dispersed seed [216,265], or sprouts following canopy removal [1,69,265]. It capitalizes on moderate to severely burned sites [110,177]. In clearcuts and young stands it forms a tall shrub layer, comprising a substantial percentage of the plant cover [7,41,104]. In some areas, Scouler willow may dominate early seral plant communities following fire or clearcutting [28,55,150,210,211,265] and on river terraces and gravel bars [1,67]. It forms a mid-seral shrub layer, the Scouler willow layer group, in several habitat types of the northern Rocky Mountains [17,226,227,228,229,231]. In the past, these layer groups formed in response to stand-replacing wildfires, but may also develop following mechanical scarification in clearcuts. Scouler willow may persist in late seral and climax stands, but the layer groups fade as succession progresses [226,229].

Scouler willow reaches its highest frequency and cover in stands at least 20 years old, with maximum frequency and cover reached between 30 and 40 years [171]. Slight shade tolerance, tall growth habit, and ability to sprout allow Scouler willow to persist under moderately dense tree cover because small openings in the canopy can stimulate sprouting and rejuvenate individuals, making it somewhat less vulnerable to successional replacement [218,222,227]. It may remain present but substantially less abundant in climax cover types [17,41,55,68,76,95,185,260]. On paired stands of uncut and clearcut grand fir forest, Scouler willow appeared only in the clearcut stands, 7 to 16 years after disturbance [6,7]. Following a stand replacing fire, Scouler willow appeared in stands 30 to 90 years old but was not present in stands greater than 150 years old [7]. Presence and cover of Scouler willow has been found to decrease with increasing stand maturity [17,172,219,240]; in one study, both values decreased significantly (p<0.05) as stands progressed from immature (<90 years old) to old growth (>150 years old) [5]. The disappearance of Scouler willow from maturing stands is attributed to the increasing competition for light and moisture as the tree cover develops [34].

Successional trends in northern Idaho, following the removal of climax coniferous forests from wildfire or logging (occasionally accompanied by prescribed fire), show that the initial postfire vegetation is dominated by a grass-forb stage [42,72,92,115,133]. Within a few years this gives way to dense brushfields, of which Scouler willow is often a dominant or co-dominant [42,56,70,72,92,97,106,108,115,133,240]. These brushfields eventually return to conifer-dominated sites; the time frame depends upon fire intensity, reburn history, seed sources, climatic conditions, and site characteristics [72].

References:

1. Agee, James K. 1988. Successional dynamics in forest riparian zones. In: Raedeke, Kenneth J., ed. Streamside management: riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. Institute of Forest Resources Contribution No. 58. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources: 31-43. [7657]
5. Antos, J. A.; Habeck, J. R. 1981. Successional development in Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes forests in the Swan Valley, western Montana. Northwest Science. 55(1): 26-39. [12445]
6. Antos, Joseph A.; Shearer, Raymond C. 1980. Vegetation development on disturbed grand fir sites, Swan Valley, northwestern Montana. Res. Pap. INT-251. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 26 p. [7269]
7. Antos, Joseph Avery. 1977. Grand fir (Abies grandis (Dougl.) Forbes) forests of the Swan Valley, Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 220 p. Thesis. [6720]
9. Argus, George W. 1973. The genus Salix in Alaska and the Yukon. Publications in Botany, No. 2. Ottowa, ON: National Museums of Canada, National Museum of Natural Sciences. 279 p. [6167]
17. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert E. 1985. Forest succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-177. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74 p. [349]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
28. Biswell, H. H.; Gibbens, R. P.; Buchanan, Hayle. 1968. Fuel conditions and fire hazard reduction costs in a giant sequoia forest. National Parks Magazine. August: 17-19. [8785]
34. Buchanan, Hayle; Biswell, Harold H.; Gibbens, Robert P. 1966. Succession of vegetation in a cut-over Sierra redwood forest. Utah Academy Proceedings. 43(Part 1): 43-48. [16543]
41. Cholewa, Anita F.; Johnson, Frederic D. 1983. Secondary succession in the Pseudotsuga menziesii/Physocarpus malvaceus association. Northwest Science. 57(4): 273-282. [11402]
42. Christianson, Steven P.; Adams, David L.; Grahm, Russell T. 1984. First season survival and growth of Douglas-fir planted in north Idaho shrubfields. Tech. Rep. 16. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho, Forest, Wildlife and Range Experiment Station. 6 p. [7256]
43. Conard, S. G.; Radosevich, S. R. 1982. Post-fire succession in white fir (Abies concolor) vegetation of the northern Sierra Nevada. Madrono. 29(1): 42-56. [4931]
44. Cowan, I. M.; Hoar, W. S.; Hatter, J. 1950. The effect of forest succession upon the quantity and upon the nutritive values of woody plants used by moose. Canadian Journal of Research. 28(5): 249-271. [12820]
45. Cowan, Ian McTaggart. 1945. The ecological relationships of the food of the Columbian black-tailed deer, Odocoileus hemionus columbianus (Richardson), in the coast forest region of southern Vancouver Island, British Columbia. Ecological Monographs. 15(2): 110-139. [16006]
47. Crane, M. F.; Habeck, James R.; Fischer, William C. 1983. Early postfire revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [710]
53. Dorn, Robert D. 1970. The willows of Montana. Bozeman, MT: Montana State University, Department of Botany and Microbiology. 18 p. [6176]
55. Douglas, George W. 1974. Montane zone vegetation of the Alsek River region, southwestern Yukon. Canadian Journal of Botany. 52: 2505-2532. [17283]
56. Drew, Larry Albert. 1967. Comparative phenology of seral shrub communities in the cedar/hemlock zone. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 108 p. Thesis. [9654]
59. Dyrness, C. T.; Viereck, L. A.; Van Cleve, K. 1986. Fire in taiga communities of interior Alaska. In: Forest ecosystems in the Alaskan taiga. New York: Springer-Verlag: 74-86. [3881]
61. Edgerton, Paul J. 1987. Influence of ungulates on the development of the shrub understory of an upper slope mixed conifer forest. In: Provenza, Frederick D.; Flinders, Jerran T.; McArthur, E. Durant, compilers. Proceedings--symposium on plant-herbivore interactions; 1985 August 7-9; Snowbird, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-222. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 162-167. [7411]
67. Fonda, R. W. 1974. Forest succession in relation to river terrace development in Olympic National Park, Washington. Ecology. 55(5): 927-942. [6746]
68. Foote, Joan. 1976. Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities following fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Final report: "Fire effects study"; BLM Contract No. 53500-CT2-244. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 181 p. [36000]
69. Foote, M. Joan. 1983. Classification, description, and dynamics of plant communities after fire in the taiga of interior Alaska. Res. Pap. PNW-307. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 108 p. [7080]
70. Forsythe, Warren Louis. 1975. Site influence on the post-fire composition of a Rocky Mountain forest. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 173 p. Dissertation. [6723]
72. Froiland, Sven G. 1962. The genus Salix (Willows) in the Black Hills of South Dakota. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 75 p. [5992]
73. Gaffney, William S. 1941. The effects of winter elk browsing, South Fork of the Flathead River, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 5(4): 427-453. [5028]
76. Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. Vegetation response to helicopter logging and broadcast burning in Douglas-fir habitat types at Silver Creek, central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-405. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 24 p. [6810]
77. Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1991. Natural regeneration microsites for Douglas-fir in central Idaho. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James E., compilers. Interior Douglas-fir: The species and its management: Symposium proceedings; 1991 February 27 - March 1; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 247-254. [18299]
84. Gruell, George E. 1984. To burn or not to burn: A wildlife management dilemma. Western Wildlands. 10(3): 9-15. [18521]
85. Gruell, George E. 1991. Historical perspective: a prerequisite for better public understanding of fire management challenges. In: Proceedings, 17th Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1989 May 18-21; Tallahassee, FL. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 25-41. [17599]
89. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement FRDA Rep. 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18034]
91. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]
92. Hann, Wendel J. 1986. Evaluation of site preparation and conifer release treatments in north Idaho shrubfields. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 115-119. [1074]
94. Hawkes, Brad C. 1983. Fire history and management study of Kluane National Park. Winnipeg, MB: Parks Canada, Prairie Region. 85 p. [21211]
95. Hayward, C. Lynn. 1945. Biotic communities of the southern Wasatch and Uinta Mountains, Utah. The Great Basin Naturalist. 6(1-4): 1-124. [15958]
97. Hickey, William O. 1971. Response of Ceanothus sanguineus to cutting and burning at various stages of phenology. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 39 p. Thesis. [9777]
102. Humphrey, Harry B.; Weaver, John Ernst. 1915. Natural reforestation in the mountains of northern Idaho. Plant World. 18: 31-49. [12448]
103. Hungerford, Roger D. 1986. Vegetation response to stand cultural operations on small stem lodgepole pine stands in Montana. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 63-71. [5896]
104. Irwin, Larry L. 1976. Effects of intensive silviculture on big game forage sources in northern Idaho. In: Hieb, S., ed. Proceedings, elk-logging roads symposium. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho: 135-142. [16146]
106. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1979. Shrub production and biomass trends following five logging treatments within the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Forest Science. 25(3): 415-426. [16511]
108. Irwin, Larry L.; Peek, James M. 1983. Elk, Cervus elaphus, foraging related to forest management and succession in Idaho. Canadian Field-Naturalist. 97(4): 443-447. [16524]
110. Johnson, Charles Grier, Jr. 1998. Vegetation response after wildfires in national forests of northeastern Oregon. R6-NR-ECOL-TP-06-98. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 128 p. (+ appendices). [30061]
115. Keay, Jeffrey A. 1977. Relationship of habitat use patterns and forage preferences of white-tailed and mule deer to post-fire vegetation, upper Selway River. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 76 p. Thesis. [1316]
127. Larsen, J. A. 1929. Fires and forest succession in the Bitterroot Mountains of northern Idaho. Ecology. 10: 67-76. [6990]
138. Lutz, H. J. 1953. The effects of forest fires on the vegetation of interior Alaska. Juneau, AK: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 36 p. [7076]
145. Lyon, L. Jack; Stickney, Peter F. 1976. Early vegetal succession following large northern Rocky Mountain wildfires. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and Intermountain Fire Research Council fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, MT. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 355-373. [1496]
150. Marcum, Les. 1971. Vegetal development on montane fir clearcuts in western Montana. Missoula, MT: University of Montana. 122 p. Thesis. [36494]
163. Miller, Melanie. 1977. Response of blue huckleberry to prescribed fires in a western Montana larch-fir forest. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-188. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 33 p. [6334]
171. Mueggler, W. F. 1961. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Durham, NC: Duke University. 126 p. Thesis. [9981]
172. Mueggler, Walter F. 1965. Ecology of seral shrub communities in the cedar-hemlock zone of northern Idaho. Ecological Monographs. 35: 165-185. [4016]
177. Neiland, Bonita J. 1958. Forest and adjacent burn in the Tillamook Burn area of northwestern Oregon. Ecology. 39(4): 660-671. [8879]
184. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire history and fire ecology in the Prince Rupert Forest region. In: Trowbridge, R. L.; Macadam, A., eds. Prescribed fire--forest soils: Symposium proceedings; 1982 March 2-3; Smithers, BC. Land Management Report Number 16. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests: 1-35. [8849]
185. Parminter, John. 1983. Fire-ecological relationships for the biogeoclimatic zones of the Cassiar Timber Supply Area. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project, Cassiar Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 172 p. [9202]
194. Porter, Glen L. 1990. Willow species of disturbed sites in the sub-boreal spruce zone in north-central British Columbia. FRDA Handbook 004; ISSN-0835-1929. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada; Victoria, BC: B.C. Ministry of Forests. 67 p. [28015]
198. Richardson, Nancy. 1980. Species-specific aboveground shrub biomass in seral communities in three habitat types in west central Montana. Missoula, MT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station, Forestry Sciences Laboratory; Final Report. 57 p. [7309]
210. Scrivner, Jerry H.; Smith, H. Duane. 1981. Pocket gophers (Thomomys talpoides) in successional stages of spruce-fir forest in Idaho. The Great Basin Naturalist. 41(3): 362-367. [7900]
211. Scrivner, Jerry H.; Smith, H. Duane. 1984. Relative abundance of small mammals in four successional stages of spruce-fir forest in Idaho. Northwest Science. 58(3): 171-175. [14881]
214. Shearer, Raymond C.; Stickney, Peter F. 1991. Natural revegetation of burned and unburned clearcuts in western larch forests of northwest Montana. In: Nodvin, Stephen C.; Waldrop, Thomas A., eds. Fire and the environment: ecological and cultural perspectives: Proceedings of an international symposium; 1990 March 20-24; Knoxville, TN. Gen. Tech. Rep. SE-69. Asheville, NC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Southeastern Forest Experiment Station: 66-74. [16635]
216. Shiplett, Brian; Neuenschwander, Leon F. 1994. Fire ecology in the cedar-hemlock zone of North Idaho. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Lotan, James E.; Tonn, Jonalea R., compiler. Interior cedar-hemlock-white pine forests: ecology and management: Symposium proceedings; 1993 March 2-4; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Department of Natural Resources: 41-51. [25789]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
219. Singer, Francis James. 1975. Wildfire and ungulates in the Glacier National Park area, northwestern Montana. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 53 p. Thesis. [19355]
222. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]
226. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1987. The grand fir/blue huckleberry habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-228. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 66 p. [8133]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
228. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]
229. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1990. The Douglas-fir/pinegrass habitat type in central Idaho: Succession and management. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 155 p. Review draft. [15764]
231. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1992. The grand fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-284. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 90 p. [17791]
236. Stickney, Peter F. 1980. Data base for post-fire succession, first 6 to 9 years, in Montana larch-fir forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-62. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 133 p. [6583]
238. Stickney, Peter F. 1982. Vegetation response to clearcutting and broadcast burning on north and south slopes at Newman Ridge. In: Baumgartner, David M., compiler. Site preparation and fuels management on steep terrain: Proceedings of a symposium; 1982 February 15-17; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 119-124. [18538]
240. Stickney, Peter F. 1986. First decade plant succession following the Sundance Forest Fire, northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-197. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 26 p. [2255]
258. Weaver, J. E. 1917. A study of the vegetation of southeastern Washington and adjacent Idaho. Nebraska University Studies. 17(1): 1-133. [7153]
260. Weixelman, David A.; Bowyer, R. Terry; Van Ballenberghe, Victor. 1998. Diet selection by Alaskan moose during winter: effects of fire and forest succession. In: Ballard, W. B.; Rodgers, A. R. J., eds. Proceedings, 33rd North American moose conference and workshop; 4th international moose symposium; 1997 May 17-23; Fairbanks, AK. In: Alces. 34(1): 213-238. [30325]
71. Franklin, Jerry F.; Moir, William H.; Hemstrom, Miles A.; [and others]. 1988. The forest communities of Mount Rainier National Park. Scientific Monograph Series No 19. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service. 194 p. [12393]
132. Leege, Thomas A. 1972. A cooperative state-federal prescribed burning program to restore Idaho elk ranges. In: Proceedings of the 52nd annual conference Western Association of Game and Fish Commissioners; 1972; Portland, OR. Portland, OR: [Publisher unknown]. 482-490. [7934]
133. Leege, Thomas A. 1975. Relationship of logging to decline of Pete King elk herd. In: Hieb, S., ed. Proceedings, elk logging-roads symposium; [Date of conference unknown]; Moscow, ID. [Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown]. 6-10. [17048]
265. Yarie, J.; Viereck, L.; Van Cleve, K.; Dryness, C. T. 1988. The chronosequence as an aid to understanding the long-term consequences of management activities. In: Dyck, W. J.; Mees, C. A, eds. Research Strategies for Long-term Productivity. Proceedings, IEA/BE A3 Workshop; [Date of conference unknown]; Seattle, WA. IEA/BE A3 Report No. 8. Rotorua, New Zealand, --: Forest Research Institute: 25-38. [17745]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Regeneration Processes

More info for the terms: fresh, hardwood, root crown, softwood

Scouler willow regenerates from both from seed and vegetatively. Scouler willow probably begins producing seed before 10 years of age [32]. Insects, especially bees, are important pollinators [88]. Seeds disperse in late spring, disseminated by wind and water [9,32,51,91,179,195,218]. These seeds have cottony hairs that allow them to travel long distances [32]. Seedlings may regenerate from windborne seed from as far as several miles away [87]. Scouler willow seeds are nondormant and remain viable for only a few days without moisture [227]. Willow seeds are characterized by a short seed life and rapid germination [179,187], and Scouler willow seeds usually germinate within 12 to 24 hours of dispersal [32]. The seeds are scarified by light burning [110] and moist mineral soil is required for germination and seedling establishment [187,218,227,267]. Zasada and others [267] found that on artificially seeded sites Scouler willow had substantially more germinants, 1st year survivors, and 3rd year survivors on heavily burned sites than moderately burned sites.

In the laboratory, the germinative capacity of fresh seeds is high; normally 95 to 100% of seed germinates within 3 days [32,52]. The seeds contain substantial amounts of chlorophyll, and photosynthesis generally occurs as soon as the seed is moistened [32]. Field experiments found that Scouler willow seeds were not viable under dry outdoor conditions; most seeds did not germinate and those that did produced abnormal seedlings [52]. Light is required for good germination. Seed may be stored up to 4 to 6 weeks if kept moist at 32 to 41 degrees Fahrenheit (0-5 oC) [32].

High seed to seedling ratios on seeded plots suggest that seeding is an inefficient way of using seed, and planting artificially regenerated plants may be a more successful method of establishment and a more efficient use of available seed [267].

Scouler willow regenerates asexually by vigorously sprouting from a subterranean root crown [1,2,3,17,23,24,40,195]. This basal sprouting occurs in response to disturbance, including fire, flooding, and mechanical damage [1,2,47]. Scouler willow sprouts typically have a tall, fast growth response [169].

Scouler willow generally propagates readily from cuttings, with 40 to 80% rooting success [58,100,213] and roots developing within 4 weeks of planting in lab and field experiments [100]. Initial roots develop on the basal portion of the cutting [49] and continued rooting progresses along buried stem surfaces [62,100]. Root development is more rapid and successful with cuttings collected during the growing season [49,89]. Densmore and Zasada [49] found that cuttings planted in the field had a survival rate of 17% after two growing seasons. In general, willow cuttings are better able to establish if planted as rooted stock [168]. Softwood cuttings of Scouler willow root as well or better than hardwood cuttings, which may offer alternatives for vegetative propagation and flexibility in producing stock for conservation planting [62].

References:

2. Agee, James K. 1994. Fire and weather disturbances in terrestrial ecosystems of the eastern Cascades. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-320. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. 52 p. (Everett, Richard L., assessment team leader; Eastside forest ecosystem health assessment; Hessburg, Paul F., science team leader and tech. ed., Volume III: assessment). [23656]
3. Agee, James K. 1996. Fire in the Blue Mountains: a history, ecology, and research agenda. In: Jaindl, R. G.; Quigley, T. M., eds. Search for a solution: sustaining the land, people and economy of the Blue Mountains. Washington, DC: American Forests: 119-145. [28827]
1. Agee, James K. 1988. Successional dynamics in forest riparian zones. In: Raedeke, Kenneth J., ed. Streamside management: riparian wildlife and forestry interactions. Institute of Forest Resources Contribution No. 58. Seattle, WA: University of Washington, College of Forest Resources: 31-43. [7657]
9. Argus, George W. 1973. The genus Salix in Alaska and the Yukon. Publications in Botany, No. 2. Ottowa, ON: National Museums of Canada, National Museum of Natural Sciences. 279 p. [6167]
17. Arno, Stephen F.; Simmerman, Dennis G.; Keane, Robert E. 1985. Forest succession on four habitat types in western Montana. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-177. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 74 p. [349]
23. Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G.; Ayers, Dayna M. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 256-259. [36098]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
32. Brinkman, Kenneth A. 1974. Salix L. willow. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 746-750. [5412]
47. Crane, M. F.; Habeck, James R.; Fischer, William C. 1983. Early postfire revegetation in a western Montana Douglas-fir forest. Res. Pap. INT-319. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 29 p. [710]
49. Densmore, R.; Zasada, J. C. 1978. Rooting potential of Alaskan willow cuttings. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 8: 477-479. [5428]
51. Densmore, Roseann; Zasada, John. 1983. Seed dispersal and dormancy patterns in northern willows: ecological and evolutionary significance. Canadian Journal of Botany. 61: 3207-3216. [5027]
52. Dittberner, Phillip L.; Olson, Michael R. 1983. The plant information network (PIN) data base: Colorado, Montana, North Dakota, Utah, and Wyoming. FWS/OBS-83/86. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and Wildlife Service. 786 p. [806]
58. Dumroese, R. Kasten; Hutton, Kathy M.; Wenny, David L. 1997. Propagating woody riparian plants in nurseries. In: Landis, Thomas D.; Thompson, Jan R., tech. coords. Regeneration, reforestation, restoration: The seedling is the key; National proceedings, forest and conservation nursery associations--1997; Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-419. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station: 71-76. [29119]
62. Edson, John L.; Leege-Brusven, Annette D.; Wenny, David L. 1995. Improved vegetative propagation of Scouler willow. Tree Planter's Notes. 46(2): 58-63. [30439]
87. Gruell, George E.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Arno, Stephen F.; Reich, William J. 1982. Seventy years of vegetative change in a managed ponderosa pine forest in western Montana--implications for resource management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-130. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 42 p. [3604]
88. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D. 1986. Autecological characteristics of selected species that compete with conifers in British Columbia: a literature review. Land Management Report No. 33. Victoria, BC: Ministry of Forests, Information Services Branch. 180 p. [1055]
89. Haeussler, S.; Coates, D.; Mather J. 1990. Autecology of common plants in British Columbia: A literature review. Economic and Regional Development Agreement FRDA Rep. 158. Victoria, BC: Forestry Canada, Pacific Forestry Centre; British Columbia Ministry of Forests, Research Branch. 272 p. [18034]
91. Halpern, C. B. 1989. Early successional patterns of forest species: interactions of life history traits and disturbance. Ecology. 70(3): 704-720. [6829]
100. Holloway, Patricia; Zasada, John. 1979. Vegetative propagation of 11 common Alaska woody plants. Res. Note PNW-334. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 12 p. [1183]
110. Johnson, Charles Grier, Jr. 1998. Vegetation response after wildfires in national forests of northeastern Oregon. R6-NR-ECOL-TP-06-98. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Region. 128 p. (+ appendices). [30061]
168. Monsen, Stephen B. 1983. Plants for revegetation of riparian sites within the Intermountain region. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Shaw, Nancy, compilers. Managing Intermountain rangelands--improvement of range and wildlife habitats: Proceedings of symposia; 1981 September 15-17; Twin Falls, ID; 1982 June 22-24; Elko, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-157. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 83-89. [9652]
179. Noste, Nonan V.; Bushey, Charles L. 1987. Fire response of shrubs of dry forest habitat types in Montana and Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-239. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 22 p. [255]
187. Parminter, John. 1984. Fire-ecological relationships for the biogeoclimatic zones of the northern portion of the Mackenzie Timber Supply Area: summary report. In: Northern Fire Ecology Project: Northern Mackenzie Timber Supply Area. Victoria, BC: Province of British Columbia, Ministry of Forests. 59 p. [9205]
195. Powell, David C. 1994. Effects of the 1980's western spruce budworm outbreak on the Malheur National Forest in northeastern Oregon. Tech. Pub. R6-FI&D-TP-12-94. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Natural Resources Staff, Forest Insects and Diseases Group. 176 p. [29717]
213. Shaw, N. 1984. Producing bareroot seedlings of native shrubs. In: Murphy, P. M., compiler. The challenge of producing native plants for the Intermountain area: Proceedings, Intermountain Nurseryman's Association conference; 1983 August 8-11; Las Vegas, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-168. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 6-15. [6850]
218. Simpson, Michael L. 1990. The subalpine fir/beargrass habitat type: Succession and management. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 134 p. Thesis. [13464]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
267. Zasada, John C.; Norum, Rodney A.; Van Veldhuizen, Robert M.; Teutsch, Christian E. 1983. Artificial regeneration of trees and tall shrubs in experimentally burned upland black spruce/feather moss stands in Alaska. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 13: 903-913. [6991]
40. Cholewa, Anita F. 1977. Successional relationships of vegetational composition to logging, burning, and grazing in the Douglas-fir/Physocarpus habitat type of northern Idaho. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 65 p. [+ appendices]. Thesis. [29853]
169. Morgan, Penelope. 1989. Managing shrub response through site preparation. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Breuer, David W.; Zamora, Benjamin A.; [and others], compilers. Prescribed fire in the Intermountain region: Symposium proceedings; 1986 March 3-5; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 161-165. [11264]

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Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: geophyte, phanerophyte

RAUNKIAER [197] LIFE FORM:
Phanerophyte
Geophyte

References:

197. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

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Life Form

More info for the terms: shrub, tree

Tree-shrub

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Cyclicity

Phenology

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Scouler willow bud development begins in April, leafing out occurs in April and May, stem elongation occurs May through July, and leaf fall occurs in July through November [56,181]. Earlier leaf fall is correlated with limited moisture availability [56]. Flowering occurs in April through June, with fruit ripening and seed dispersal occurring in May through July [32,254].

References:

32. Brinkman, Kenneth A. 1974. Salix L. willow. In: Schopmeyer, C. S., technical coordinator. Seeds of woody plants in the United States. Agric. Handb. 450. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 746-750. [5412]
56. Drew, Larry Albert. 1967. Comparative phenology of seral shrub communities in the cedar/hemlock zone. Moscow, ID: University of Idaho. 108 p. Thesis. [9654]
181. Orme, Mark L.; Leege, Thomas A. 1976. Emergence and survival of redstem (Ceanothus sanguineus) following prescribed burning. In: Proceedings, Tall Timbers fire ecology conference and fire and land management symposium; 1974 October 8-10; Missoula, Montana. No. 14. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 391-420. [6273]
254. Viereck, Leslie A. 1973. Wildfire in the taiga of Alaska. Quaternary Research. 3: 465-495. [7247]

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Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLD)

Molecular Biology

Statistics of barcoding coverage: Salix scouleriana

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 72
Specimens with Barcodes: 76
Species With Barcodes: 1

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Conservation Status

National NatureServe Conservation Status

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

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NatureServe Conservation Status

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

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Management

Management considerations

More info for the terms: cover, prescribed fire, root crown, shrub, shrubs, tree, wildfire

The deep root system, multiple stems, and ability to sprout from a
subterranean root crown rather than surface sprouting may increase Scouler
willow's tolerance to disturbance [24].

Fire can be used to maintain shrub productivity on
seral brushfields and encourage shrub dominance after harvest. Tree establishment
can be encouraged by excluding wildfire, using site preparation methods that do
not encourage grass or shrub species, and planting and seeding pioneer species
under the shade of killed shrubs [222].

Prescribed fire has been used to stimulate sprouting
of Scouler willow that has grown out of reach of big game browsers
[130,131,135]. In burned areas, the current annual growth of willows
is considerably higher than in control areas, and fire increases both browse
production and availability [18]. Prescribed fire was used in the 1960's to rejuvenate northern Idaho brushfields for elk winter range [136]. When prescribed burning causes greater than 50% canopy mortality,
substantially higher current annual growth (CAG) of Scouler willow is produced.
CAG of vigorously growing plants has a higher nutritive value and nutrient
concentration than mature, slower growing plants [183]. Big game prefer browsing on the
current annual growth of burned willows than that of unburned willows [18]. Utilization by elk demonstrated an obvious preference for the sprouts of
burned Scouler willow following mechanical treatment and understory burning; the
surviving plants were substantially more vigorous, with greater live biomass and
better palatability than the unburned plants [15,16,23,131]. Scouler willow experiences a dramatic
increase in available browse production immediately following burning, the
result of shrub removal and sprouting that reduces the height and increases
the availability of browse [130,134,139,140,263]. In one study, Scouler willow reached 10 feet in height 4 years
after burning, with 80% of twig production available for elk browse. However,
repeated treatment may be necessary to maintain browse availability [132]. Scouler willow browse production increased from 6.5 to 44.1 kg/ha 3 to 7
years after wildfire in Alaska. The increase in production was due to an
increase in the number of shrubs during the 1st 5 years and an increase in
the number of twigs per shrub during all 7 years. Stems were available after the
first 2 years; 4 years postfire, browse production in the burned area was twice
that in the unburned area; and at 7 years postfire browse was 5 times greater.
Browse production is likely to peak at 10-15 years and decrease by 20 years
postfire [264].

Scouler willow responds well to both fall and spring
burning; however, fall burning eliminates the following winter's food supply for
animals. Spring burns regrow rapidly, with 5 foot (1.5 m) sprouts common by
summer on burns in Idaho [130]. It has shown no decreased vigor from
burning at 5 year intervals [135]. Brushfield burning to improve elk
winter range in Idaho has often occurred during the spring or fall. However,
another very important browse species, redstem ceanothus, is not always replaced
by seedlings under these treatments because the seedcoat required high soil
temperatures to crack and allow germination. Therefore, for winter range
improvement, summer prescribed fires may need to be considered [259].

Willows produce, within limits, denser growth when
they are browsed [8], with browsed
stems branching laterally [253]. Browsing stimulates production of Scouler willow,
though continuous browsing over several years may eventually deplete plant or
soil reserves resulting in an eventual decline in productivity [263]. Following wildfires in Alaska, Scouler willow

sprouts have suffered intense browsing by snowshoe hares, which often migrate
to burned areas to feed. In some locations, 100% of the current annual growth of
sprouts was removed for 2 succeeding winters [253,263].
This impact normally lasts for only a few years. Flowering and fruit production of Scouler willow are affected by heavy browsing,
possibly resulting in low seedling success and recruitment, and browsing may
suppress sprouting [24,34]. In burned and
unburned clearcuts, grazed sites had no Scouler willow present, while ungrazed
sites had 5 to 7% Scouler willow cover 11 years after treatment [61].
Where it is subject to overbrowsing, the loss of Scouler willow may result in
substantial losses to elk herds [73].

Mechanical thinning may prevent suppression of
Scouler willow in Douglas-fir/ponderosa pine forests [87].
Scouler willow increased in biomass and vigor in response to thinning in a
Douglas-fir/ponderosa pine stand in Montana, indicating a positive response to
overstory reduction [24]. Winter carrying capacity for mule deer
may be substantially increased after mechanical treatment due to the
establishment and growth of Scouler willow [87]. It is difficult
to achieve control of Scouler willow using mechanical treatment due to the

sprouting of damaged shrubs, and clearcutting can result in major canopy
increases. Chemical treatments may be required if
managing for ponderosa pine establishment due to its inability to compete with
Scouler willow [227,228].

Herbicide treatments of Scouler willow aimed at
increasing sprouting and maintaining production at a height available to big
game have erratic and complex results; the production of sprouts did not
persist, but the reduction in crown height did persist [143].
Scouler willow is highly sensitive to light applications of 2,4-D and 2,4,5-T. With 2,4-D, basal sprouting was proportional to crown kill; the maximum
crown height was reduced and the proportion of live crown within reach of deer
and elk increased accordingly. Sprout production was most favored by treatment
in August and least by treatment in October; plant kill was highest following
September treatment [173]. In other studies, crown volume and cover of
Scouler willow were reduced by 50% after herbicide treatment [157].
Herbicide control of Scouler willow may be effective in allowing Douglas-fir to
regenerate in the seral brushfields of Idaho [92]. Percent control of
Scouler willow with different herbicides ranges from 33 to 100%
[158,159,160,161].

References:

8. Argus, George W. 1957. The willows of Wyoming. University of Wyoming Publications. 21(1). Laramie, WY: University of Wyoming, Publications in Science. 63 p. [4962]
15. Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Fiedler, Carl E.; Carlson, Clinton E. 1995. Restoring fire-dependent ponderosa pine forests in western Montana. Restoration and Management Notes. 13(1): 32-36. [27601]
16. Arno, Stephen F.; Harrington, Michael G.; Fiedler, Carl E.; Carlson, Clinton E. 1998. Using silviculture and prescribed fire to reduce fire hazard and improve health in ponderosa pine forests. In: Close, Kelly; Bartlette, Roberta A., eds. Fire management under fire(adapting to change): Proceedings, 1994 Interior West Fire Council meeting and program; 1994 November 1-4; Coeur d'Alene, ID. Fairfield, WA: Interior West Fire Council: 99-105. [29065]
23. Bedunah, Donald J.; Harrington, Michael G.; Ayers, Dayna M. 1999. Antelope bitterbrush and Scouler's willow response to a forest restoration project. In: McArthur, E. Durant; Ostler, W. Kent; Wambolt, Carl L., compilers. Proceedings: shrubland ecotones; 1998 August 12-14; Ephraim, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-11. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 256-259. [36098]
24. Bedunah, Donald J.; Willard, E. Earl; Marcum, C. Les. 1995. Response of willow and bitterbrush to shelterwood cutting and underburning treatments in a ponderosa pine forest. Final Report: Research Joint Venture Agreement No. INT-92684-RJVA. Unpublished manuscript. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [26485]
34. Buchanan, Hayle; Biswell, Harold H.; Gibbens, Robert P. 1966. Succession of vegetation in a cut-over Sierra redwood forest. Utah Academy Proceedings. 43(Part 1): 43-48. [16543]
61. Edgerton, Paul J. 1987. Influence of ungulates on the development of the shrub understory of an upper slope mixed conifer forest. In: Provenza, Frederick D.; Flinders, Jerran T.; McArthur, E. Durant, compilers. Proceedings--symposium on plant-herbivore interactions; 1985 August 7-9; Snowbird, UT. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-222. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 162-167. [7411]
73. Gaffney, William S. 1941. The effects of winter elk browsing, South Fork of the Flathead River, Montana. Journal of Wildlife Management. 5(4): 427-453. [5028]
87. Gruell, George E.; Schmidt, Wyman C.; Arno, Stephen F.; Reich, William J. 1982. Seventy years of vegetative change in a managed ponderosa pine forest in western Montana--implications for resource management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-130. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 42 p. [3604]
92. Hann, Wendel J. 1986. Evaluation of site preparation and conifer release treatments in north Idaho shrubfields. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers/eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 115-119. [1074]
130. Leege, Thomas A. 1968. Prescribed burning for elk in northern Idaho. In: Proceedings, annual Tall Timbers fire ecology conference; 1968 March 14-15; Tallahassee, FL. No 8. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 235-253. [5287]
131. Leege, Thomas A. 1969. Burning seral brush ranges for big game in northern Idaho. Transactions, North American Wildlife and Natural Resources Conference. 34: 429-438. [144]
134. Leege, Thomas A. 1978. Changes in browse intercept, production and seedlings after burning--Holly Creek. Job Completion Report No. W-160-R. Elk ecology: Range rehabilitation by spring burning: July 1, 1965 to June 30, 1978. Boise, ID: Idaho Department of Fish and Game. 11 p. [17170]
135. Leege, Thomas A. 1979. Effects of repeated prescribed burns on northern Idaho elk browse. Northwest Science. 53(2): 107-113. [5116]
136. Leege, Thomas A.; Hickey, William O. 1971. Sprouting of northern Idaho shrubs after prescribed burning. Journal of Wildlife Management. 35(3): 508-515. [1437]
139. Lyon, L. Jack. 1966. Initial vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-29. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 17 p. [1494]
140. Lyon, L. Jack. 1971. Vegetal development following prescribed burning of Douglas-fir in south-central Idaho. Res. Pap. INT-105. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 30 p. [1495]
183. Owens, T. E. 1982. Postburn regrowth of shrubs related to canopy mortality. Northwest Science. 56(1): 34-40. [1806]
222. Smith, Jane Kapler; Fischer, William C. 1997. Fire ecology of the forest habitat types of northern Idaho. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-363. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 142 p. [27992]
227. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/mountain maple habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Preliminary draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 77 p. [8434]
228. Steele, Robert; Geier-Hayes, Kathleen. 1989. The Douglas-fir/ninebark habitat type in central Idaho: succession and management. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-252. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 65 p. [8136]
253. Viereck, L. A.; Dyrness, C. T. 1979. Ecological effects of the Wickersham Dome Fire near Fairbanks, Alaska. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-90. Portland, OR: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Forest and Range Experiment Station. 71 p. [6392]
143. Lyon, L. Jack; Mueggler, Walter F. 1968. Herbicide treatment of north Idaho browse evaluated six years later. Journal of Wildlife Management. 32(3): 538-541. [8428]
157. Miller, Daniel L. 1981. The effects of Roundup herbicide on northern Idaho conifers and shrub species. Forestry Technical Paper TP-81-2. Lewiston, ID: Potlatch Corporation. 13 p. [3581]
158. Miller, Daniel L. 1986. Manual and mechanical methods of vegetation control--what works and what doesn't. In: Baumgartner, David M.; Boyd, Raymond J.; Breuer, David W.; Miller, Daniel L., compilers and eds. Weed control for forest productivity in the Interior West: Symposium proceedings; 1985 February 5-7; Spokane, WA. Pullman, WA: Washington State University, Cooperative Extension: 55-60. [1647]
159. Miller, Daniel L.; Kidd, Frank A. 1982. How to write a herbicide prescription for shrub control. Forestry Technical Paper TP-82-6. Lewiston, ID: Potlatch Corporation, Wood Products, Western Division. 12 p. [3390]
160. Miller, Daniel L.; Kidd, Frank A. 1983. Shrub control in the Inland Northwest--a summary of herbicide test results. Forestry Research Note RN-83-4. Lewiston, ID: Potlatch Corporation. 49 p. [7861]
161. Miller, Daniel L.; Robinson, Vernon S. 1983. The influence of spray altitude on shrub control. Forestry Research Note RN-83-1. Lewiston, ID: Potlach Corporation. 6 p. [3399]
173. Mueggler, Walter F. 1966. Herbicide treatment of browse on a big-game winter range in northern Idaho. Journal of Wildlife Management. 30(1): 141-151. [8427]
263. Wolff, Jerry O. 1978. Burning and browsing effects on willow growth in interior Alaska. Journal of Wildlife Management. 42(1): 135-140. [3500]
259. Weaver, Stephen M. 1987. Fire and elk: summer prescription burning on elk winter range, a new direction in Habitat management on the Nez Perce National Forest. Bugle: The Quarterly Journal of the Rocky Mountain Elk Foundation. 4(2): 41-42. [98]
18. Asherin, Duane A. 1975. Changes in elk use and available browse production on north Idaho winter ranges following prescribed burning. In: Hieb, S., ed. Proceedings, elk logging-roads symposium; [Date of conference unknown]; Moscow, ID. [Place of publication unknown]: [Publisher unknown]. 122-134. [17049]
132. Leege, Thomas A. 1972. A cooperative state-federal prescribed burning program to restore Idaho elk ranges. In: Proceedings of the 52nd annual conference Western Association of Game and Fish Commissioners; 1972; Portland, OR. Portland, OR: [Publisher unknown]. 482-490. [7934]
264. Wolff, Jerry O.; Zasada, John C. 1979. Moose habitat and forest succession on the Tanana river floodplain and Yukon-Tanana upland. In: Proceedings, North American Moose Conference and Workshop No 15; [Date of conference unknown]; Kenai, AK. [Place of publication unknown]. [Publisher unknown]. 213-244. [6860]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

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