Schoenocrambe linifolia

Regional Distribution in the Western United States

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [11]:

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

References:

11. Bernard, Stephen R.; Brown, Kenneth F. 1977. Distribution of mammals, reptiles, and amphibians by BLM physiographic regions and A.W. Kuchler's associations for the eleven western states. Tech. Note 301. Denver, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, Bureau of Land Management. 169 p. [434]

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Distribution

Flaxleaf plainsmustard occurs east of the Cascade Range from British Columbia [34] and Saskatchewan east to central Wyoming [19] and western Colorado [66]; and south to Oregon, northern Nevada [36], Arizona [38], and New Mexico [37]. It is most common in the Columbia, Great, and Colorado basins, especially the Colorado Basin [67]. Flaxleaf plainsmustard is rare in Montana [44]. Plants database provides a distributional map of flaxleaf plainsmustard.

References:

19. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]
34. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
38. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
44. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]
66. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
67. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
36. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]
37. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 3 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

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National Distribution

Canada

Origin: Native

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Present

Confidence: Confident

Type of Residency: Year-round

United States

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

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NatureServe

Global Range: BC to OR, MT, WY to NV, UT (most counties), NM. East of the Cascades.

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

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NatureServe

Morphology

Description

More info for the terms: caudex, forb, perfect

The following description of flaxleaf plainsmustard provides characteristics that may be relevant to fire ecology, and is not meant for identification. Keys for identification are available (e.g. [19,34,37,38,66,67]).

Flaxleaf plainsmustard is a native forb. Stems are 7.9 to 20 inches (20-50 cm) tall, arising from a simple or branched caudex. Leaves are linear, pinnate at the stem base and becoming entire up the stem. The inflorescence is a raceme of perfect flowers. Fruits are siliques measuring 0.04 inch wide and 0.4 to 2.4 inches long (1 mm Ã 3-6 cm) [38,47,67]. The unwinged seeds are about 1.5 mm in diameter [34]. Flaxleaf plainsmustard has deep, long, highly branched rhizomes [44,67] and highly branched roots [44]. As of this writing (2003), average and maximum life spans of this perennial have not been documented in the literature.

References:

19. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]
34. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
38. Kearney, Thomas H.; Peebles, Robert H.; Howell, John Thomas; McClintock, Elizabeth. 1960. Arizona flora. 2d ed. Berkeley, CA: University of California Press. 1085 p. [6563]
44. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]
47. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37176]
66. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
67. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
37. Kartesz, John Thomas. 1988. A flora of Nevada. Reno, NV: University of Nevada. 1729 p. [In 3 volumes]. Dissertation. [42426]

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Habitat

Key Plant Community Associations

More info for the terms: forb, forbs, shrub

Flaxleaf plainsmustard occurs in salt-desert shrub, sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), pinyon-juniper
(Pinus-Juniperus spp.), mountain shrub,
ponderosa pine (P. ponderosa), and trembling aspen (Populus tremuloides) communities [23,36,51,67].

In northeastern Utah the most common associates of flaxleaf plainsmustard in a
Utah juniper-Colorado pinyon/low sagebrush (J.
osteosperma-P. edulis/A. arbuscula) community were broom snakeweed (Gutierrezia sarothrae),
big sagebrush (A. tridentata), bottlebrush squirreltail (Elymus elymoides),
prickly-pear (Opuntia spp.), and grassy rockgoldenrod (Petradoria
pumila). Flaxleaf plainsmustard was 1 of the most common forbs in the
community [9]. Associates in a true mountain-mahogany (Cercocarpus montanus)
community in the Uintah Basin, Utah, were nodding buckwheat (Eriogonum
cernuum), Salina wildrye (Elymus salinus), and Fremont goosefoot (Chenopodium
fremontii) [27].
On the Snake River Plain of southern Idaho, flaxleaf plainsmustard was the
most important forb in cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)-bottlebrush squirreltail-thickspike wheatgrass
in (E. lanceolatus) mountain
grassland. Other important forbs included bastard toadflax (Comandra
umbellata) and nodding buckwheat [46].

References:

9. Austin, Dennis D. 1999. Changes in plant composition within a pinyon-juniper woodland. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 138-140. [30547]
23. Fule, Peter Z.; Springer, Judith D.; Huffman, David W.; Covington, W. Wallace. 2001. Response of a rare endemic, Penstemon clutei, to burning and reduced belowground competition. In: Maschinski, Joyce; Holter, Louella, tech. coords. Southwestern rare and endangered plants: Proceedings of the 3rd conference; 2000 September 25-28; Flagstaff, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-23. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 139-152. [40601]
27. Greenwood, Larry R.; Brotherson, Jack D. 1978. Ecological relationships between pinyon-juniper and true mountain mahogany stands in the Uintah Basin, Utah. Journal of Range Management. 31(3): 164-167. [15654]
46. MacCracken, James G.; Hansen, Richard M. 1982. Herbaceous vegetation of habitat used by blacktail jackrabbits and Nuttall cottontails in southeastern Idaho. The American Midland Naturalist. 107(1): 180-184. [21839]
51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
67. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
36. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]

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Habitat: Rangeland Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the terms: cover, shrub

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [60]:

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

211 Creosote bush scrub

212 Blackbush

314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue

316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue

320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue

322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

404 Threetip sagebrush

405 Black sagebrush

406 Low sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

414 Salt desert shrub

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

416 True mountain-mahogany

417 Littleleaf mountain-mahogany

418 Bigtooth maple

422 Riparian

501 Saltbush-greasewood

504 Juniper-pinyon pine woodland

506 Creosotebush-bursage

612 Sagebrush-grass

614 Crested wheatgrass

References:

60. Shiflet, Thomas N., ed. 1994. Rangeland cover types of the United States. Denver, CO: Society for Range Management. 152 p. [23362]

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Habitat: Cover Types

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

More info for the term: cover

SAF COVER TYPES [21]:

217 Aspen

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

235 Cottonwood-willow

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

References:

21. Eyre, F. H., ed. 1980. Forest cover types of the United States and Canada. Washington, DC: Society of American Foresters. 148 p. [905]

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Habitat: Plant Associations

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

KUCHLER [42] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K039 Blackbrush

K040 Saltbush-greasewood

K041 Creosote bush

K042 Creosote bush-bur sage

K055 Sagebrush steppe

K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe

References:

42. Kuchler, A. W. 1964. United States [Potential natural vegetation of the conterminous United States]. Special Publication No. 36. New York: American Geographical Society. 1:3,168,000; colored. [3455]

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Habitat: Ecosystem

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [24]:

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES38 Plains grasslands

References:

24. Garrison, George A.; Bjugstad, Ardell J.; Duncan, Don A.; Lewis, Mont E.; Smith, Dixie R. 1977. Vegetation and environmental features of forest and range ecosystems. Agric. Handb. 475. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service. 68 p. [998]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Habitat characteristics

Flaxleaf plainsmustard occurs on open plains, hills, and basins [19,30,47]. In Colorado it is reported on valley floors with moisture regimes varying from wet to dry [66]. It is common on clay and gravel soils [30,36], and is reported on cinder soils near Sunset Crater National Monument, Arizona [23].

A few elevational ranges have been reported for flaxleaf plainsmustard:

Arizona 2,500-9,500 ft (760-2,900 m) [18] Colorado 4,500-8,500 ft (1,400-2,600 m) [30] Nevada 6,000-9,500 ft (1,800-2,900 m) [36] New Mexico 5,000-8,000 ft (1,500-2,400 m) [47] Utah 3,660-8,825 ft (1,115-2,690 m) [26,67]

References:

19. Dorn, Robert D. 1988. Vascular plants of Wyoming. Cheyenne, WY: Mountain West Publishing. 340 p. [6129]
23. Fule, Peter Z.; Springer, Judith D.; Huffman, David W.; Covington, W. Wallace. 2001. Response of a rare endemic, Penstemon clutei, to burning and reduced belowground competition. In: Maschinski, Joyce; Holter, Louella, tech. coords. Southwestern rare and endangered plants: Proceedings of the 3rd conference; 2000 September 25-28; Flagstaff, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-23. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 139-152. [40601]
30. Harrington, H. D. 1964. Manual of the plants of Colorado. 2d ed. Chicago: The Swallow Press, Inc. 666 p. [6851]
47. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37176]
66. Weber, William A.; Wittmann, Ronald C. 1996. Colorado flora: eastern slope. 2nd ed. Niwot, CO: University Press of Colorado. 524 p. [27572]
67. Welsh, Stanley L.; Atwood, N. Duane; Goodrich, Sherel; Higgins, Larry C., eds. 1987. A Utah flora. The Great Basin Naturalist Memoir No. 9. Provo, UT: Brigham Young University. 894 p. [2944]
26. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; [and others]. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]
18. Dittmann, Lee. 2003. Northern Arizona flora: A photographic, annotated catalog of northern Arizona vascular plants, [Online]. Available: http://www.nazflora.org/ [2003, July 13]. [44520]
36. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]

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Comments: Sagebrush plains and on dry pinyon-juniper hillsides of lower mountains, often on clay soil. Salt desert shrub, sagebrush, mountain brush, and aspen communities at 1155-2690 m.

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NatureServe

General Ecology

Fire Management Considerations

More info for the term: fire management

There is little research on the mechanisms of flaxleaf plainsmustard establishment after fire. Further information is needed for a sound, scientific basis of fire management for this native mustard.

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Broad-scale Impacts of Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: competition, frequency

Flaxleaf plainsmustard established
after prescribed summer burning (29 July-1
Aug., 1994) in a ponderosa pine community on the Coconino National Forest,
Arizona. The burn objective was to document fire effects on sunset
penstemon (Penstemon clutei), a rare endemic. As well as establishing on
burn plots, flaxleaf plainsmustard also
established in unburned experimental trenches dug to reduce root competition for sunset
penstemon [23].

In a Utah juniper-Colorado pinyon community in the Green
River corridor of northeastern Utah, flaxleaf plainsmustard showed 8% frequency
on an 80-year-old burn that was disturbed by frequent bighorn sheep grazing.
Bighorn sheep appeared to favor the burn, which still retained a relatively open
canopy, over closed-canopy areas that had not experienced fire for 150+ years.
Flaxleaf plainsmustard did not occur on closed-canopy plots [25].

References:

23. Fule, Peter Z.; Springer, Judith D.; Huffman, David W.; Covington, W. Wallace. 2001. Response of a rare endemic, Penstemon clutei, to burning and reduced belowground competition. In: Maschinski, Joyce; Holter, Louella, tech. coords. Southwestern rare and endangered plants: Proceedings of the 3rd conference; 2000 September 25-28; Flagstaff, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-23. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 139-152. [40601]
25. Goodrich, Sherel; Gale, Natalie. 1999. Cheatgrass frequency at two relic sites within the pinyon-juniper belt of Red Canyon. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 69-71. [30494]

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Plant Response to Fire

More info for the terms: caudex, top-kill

Flaxleaf plainsmustard can sprout from the caudex and underground rhizomes after top-kill [51,72]; therefore, it is described as "unharmed" by fire. It may spread rapidly after top-kill [51], although the mechanisms (vegetative and/or seedling establishment) of postfire establishment are not noted in existing literature (as of 2003). The relative importance of postfire sprouting vs. establishment from seed is unknown for this species. Basic research is needed on the life history of flaxleaf plainsmustard, particularly on seed bank ecology. Fire managers interested in flaxleaf plainsmustard need further information regarding its postfire sprouting response and its ability to establish from seed after fire.

References:

51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
72. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]

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Immediate Effect of Fire

Fire top-kills flaxleaf plainsmustard [51,72].

References:

51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
72. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Post-fire Regeneration

More info for the terms: rhizome, root crown

POSTFIRE REGENERATION STRATEGY [62]:
Rhizomatous herb, rhizome in soil
Caudex/herbaceous root crown, growing points in soil

References:

62. Stickney, Peter F. 1989. Seral origin of species originating in northern Rocky Mountain forests. Unpublished draft on file at: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. 10 p. [20090]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Fire Ecology

More info for the terms: caudex, cover, density, fire severity, frequency, mixed-severity fire, severity, shrubs, stand-replacement fire, surface fire, tree

Fire adaptations: Flaxleaf plainsmustard has adapted to fire by sprouting from the caudex and rhizomes after fire [51,72]. Postfire establishment from the seed bank is likely, but has not been documented in the literature.

FIRE REGIMES: Having evolved in both fire-adapted ecosystems and in ecosystems where fire was historically infrequent, flaxleaf plainsmustard is able to persist under many FIRE REGIMES, varying from frequent surface fire (i.e., ponderosa pine) to mixed-severity fire (pinyon-juniper) and infrequent, stand-replacement fire (creosotebush (Larrea tridentata)).

Sagebrush steppe: Historic FIRE REGIMES are variable in big sagebrush/bunchgrass ecosystems, with fire return intervals ranging between 10 and 70 years [8,16,49,50,65,76]. Historic fire seasons in the sagebrush steppe occurred between July and September [1,4,40,75], with the middle to end of August being the period of the most extreme fire conditions [15]. The introduction and increasing dominance of cheatgrass has changed the seasonal occurrence and increased the frequency and size of wildfires in these ecosystems, thus altering successional patterns [12,52,56,68].

Salt-desert shrubland: Fires were historically infrequent in salt-desert shrublands. Desert shrublands usually lack sufficient fine fuels to carry fire, with widely spaced shrubs and bunchgrasses and relatively bare interspaces [13,14,69,77]. Historic fire return intervals in these ecosystems (dominated by saltbush (Atriplex spp.), black greasewood (Sarcobatus vermiculatus), creosotebush, and blackbrush (Coleogyne ramosissima)) are thought to average between 35 and 100 years or more [50].

Pinyon-juniper woodlands are characterized by a large number of diverse habitat types that vary in tree and herbaceous species composition and density, and fire regime characteristics. Fire severity and frequency vary, depending largely on site productivity. On less productive sites with discontinuous grass cover, fires were probably infrequent, small, and patchy [50]. Fire intervals were probably greater than 100 years in these areas, but did fire occur more frequently under extreme conditions [26]. On more productive sites where grass cover was more continuous, fire intervals may have been 10 years or less, maintaining more open stands. Historical FIRE REGIMES in dense stands were a mixture of surface and crown fires, with surface fires at intervals of 10-50 years and crown fires at intervals of 200-300 years or longer. Fire susceptibility in pinyon-juniper communities also depends on the stage of stand development. In young open stands, shrubs and herbaceous cover may be sufficient to carry fire, but as the stand approaches crown closure, herbaceous cover declines and eventually becomes too sparse to carry fire [50].

The following table provides fire return intervals for plant communities and ecosystems where flaxleaf plainsmustard may be important. For further information, see the FEIS report on the dominant species listed below.

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) silver sagebrush steppe Artemisia cana 5-45 [31,54,71] sagebrush steppe A. tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [50] basin big sagebrush A. tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [58] mountain big sagebrush A. tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [8,16,49] Wyoming big sagebrush A. tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [65,76] saltbush-greasewood Atriplex confertifolia-Sarcobatus vermiculatus < 35 to < 100 desert grasslands Bouteloua eriopoda and/or Pleuraphis mutica 5-100 [50] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. 50,71] blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass B. gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii 50,57,71] blue grama-buffalo grass B. gracilis-Buchloe dactyloides 50,71] grama-galleta steppe Bouteloua gracilis-Pleuraphis jamesii < 35 to < 100 blue grama-tobosa prairie B. gracilis-P. mutica 50] cheatgrass Bromus tectorum 52,70] blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima < 35 to < 100 western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70 Rocky Mountain juniper J. scopulorum < 35 creosotebush Larrea tridentata 50] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 50,54,71] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 50] Colorado pinyon P. edulis 10-400+ [22,26,39,50] Pacific ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. ponderosa 1-47 [7] interior ponderosa pine* P. ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [7,10,45] Arizona pine P. ponderosa var. arizonica 2-15 [10,17,59] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [7,28,48] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [6,7] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary
**mean

References:

16. Burkhardt, Wayne J.; Tisdale, E. W. 1976. Causes of juniper invasion in southwestern Idaho. Ecology. 57: 472-484. [565]
22. Floyd, M. Lisa; Romme, William H.; Hanna, David D. 2000. Fire history and vegetation pattern in Mesa Verde National Park, Colorado, USA. Ecological Applications. 10(6): 1666-1680. [37590]
10. Baisan, Christopher H.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1990. Fire history on a desert mountain range: Rincon Mountain Wilderness, Arizona, U.S.A. Canadian Journal of Forest Research. 20: 1559-1569. [14986]
6. Arno, Stephen F. 1980. Forest fire history in the Northern Rockies. Journal of Forestry. 78(8): 460-465. [11990]
7. Arno, Stephen F. 2000. Fire in western forest ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-vol. 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 97-120. [36984]
8. Arno, Stephen F.; Gruell, George E. 1983. Fire history at the forest-grassland ecotone in southwestern Montana. Journal of Range Management. 36(3): 332-336. [342]
4. Antos, Joseph A.; McCune, Bruce; Bara, Cliff. 1983. The effect of fire on an ungrazed western Montana grassland. The American Midland Naturalist. 110(2): 354-364. [337]
1. Acker, Steven A. 1992. Wildfire and soil organic carbon in sagebrush-bunchgrass vegetation. The Great Basin Naturalist. 52(3): 284-287. [20093]
12. Billings, W. D. 1994. Ecological impacts of cheatgrass and resultant fire on ecosystems in the western Great Basin. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 22-30. [24248]
13. Brooks, Matthew L. 1999. Alien annual grasses and fire in the Mojave Desert. Madrono. 46(1): 13-19. [34386]
14. Brooks, Matthew L.; Pyke, David A. 2001. Invasive plants and fire in the deserts of North America. In: Galley, Krista E. M.; Wilson, Tyrone P., eds. Proceedings of the invasive species workshop: The role of fire in the control and spread of invasive species; Fire conference 2000: the first national congress on fire ecology, prevention, and management; 2000 November 27 - December 1; San Diego, CA. Misc. Publ. No. 11. Tallahassee, FL: Tall Timbers Research Station: 1-14. [40491]
15. Bunting, Stephen C.; Peters, Erin F.; Sapsis, David B. 1994. Impact of fire management on rangelands of the Intermountain West. Scientific Contract Report: Science Integration Team, Terrestrial Staff, Range Task Group. Walla Walla, WA: Interior Columbia Basin Ecosystem Management Project. 32 p. [26452]
17. Cooper, Charles F. 1961. Pattern in ponderosa pine forests. Ecology. 42(3): 493-499. [5780]
28. Gruell, G. E.; Loope, L. L. 1974. Relationships among aspen, fire, and ungulate browsing in Jackson Hole, Wyoming. Lakewood, CO: U.S. Department of the Interior, National Park Service, Rocky Mountain Region. 33 p. In cooperation with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Region. [3862]
40. Knapp, Paul A. 1995. Intermountain West lightning-caused fires: climatic predictors of area burned. Journal of Range Management. 48(1): 85-91. [24426]
45. Laven, R. D.; Omi, P. N.; Wyant, J. G.; Pinkerton, A. S. 1980. Interpretation of fire scar data from a ponderosa pine ecosystem in the central Rocky Mountains, Colorado. In: Stokes, Marvin A.; Dieterich, John H., technical coordinators. Proceedings of the fire history workshop; 1980 October 20-24; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-81. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 46-49. [7183]
48. Meinecke, E. P. 1929. Quaking aspen: A study in applied forest pathology. Tech. Bull. No. 155. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [26669]
49. Miller, Richard F.; Rose, Jeffery A. 1995. Historic expansion of Juniperus occidentalis (western juniper) in southeastern Oregon. The Great Basin Naturalist. 55(1): 37-45. [26637]
51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
52. Peters, Erin F.; Bunting, Stephen C. 1994. Fire conditions pre- and postoccurrence of annual grasses on the Snake River Plain. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 31-36. [24249]
54. Quinnild, Clayton L.; Cosby, Hugh E. 1958. Relicts of climax vegetation on two mesas in western North Dakota. Ecology. 39(1): 29-32. [1925]
56. Rice, Barry Meyers; Randall, John, compilers. 1999. Weed report: Bromus tectorum--cheatgrass. In: Wildland weeds management and research: 1998-1999 weed survey. Davis, CA: The Nature Conservancy, Wildland Invasive Species Program. 8 p. On file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [43180]
57. Rowe, J. S. 1983. Concepts of fire effects on plant individuals and species. In: Wein, Ross W.; MacLean, David A., eds. The role of fire in northern circumpolar ecosystems. SCOPE 18. New York: John Wiley & Sons: 135-154. [2038]
58. Sapsis, David B. 1990. Ecological effects of spring and fall prescribed burning on basin big sagebrush/Idaho fescue--bluebunch wheatgrass communities. Corvallis, OR: Oregon State University. 105 p. Thesis. [16579]
65. Vincent, Dwain W. 1992. The sagebrush/grasslands of the upper Rio Puerco area, New Mexico. Rangelands. 14(5): 268-271. [19698]
68. West, Neil E. 1988. Intermountain deserts, shrub steppes, and woodlands. In: Barbour, Michael G.; Billings, William Dwight, eds. North American terrestrial vegetation. Cambridge; New York: Cambridge University Press: 209-230. [19546]
69. West, Neil E.; Ibrahim, Kamal I. 1968. Soil-vegetation relationships in the shadscale zone of southeastern Utah. Ecology. 49(3): 445-456. [2514]
70. Whisenant, Steven G. 1990. Postfire population dynamics of Bromus japonicus. The American Midland Naturalist. 123: 301-308. [11150]
71. Wright, Henry A.; Bailey, Arthur W. 1982. Fire ecology: United States and southern Canada. New York: John Wiley & Sons. 501 p. [2620]
72. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]
75. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1978. Population dynamics after wildfires in sagebrush grasslands. Journal of Range Management. 31(4): 283-289. [2657]
76. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1981. Demography and fire history of a western juniper stand. Journal of Range Management. 34(6): 501-505. [2659]
77. Zamora, B.; Tueller, Paul T. 1973. Artemisia arbuscula, A. longiloba, and A. nova habitat types in northern Nevada. The Great Basin Naturalist. 33(4): 225-242. [2688]
26. Gottfried, Gerald J.; Swetnam, Thomas W.; Allen, Craig D.; [and others]. 1995. Pinyon-juniper woodlands. In: Finch, Deborah M.; Tainter, Joseph A., eds. Ecology, diversity, and sustainability of the Middle Rio Grande Basin. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-268. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 95-132. [26188]
31. Heyerdahl, Emily K.; Berry, Dawn; Agee, James K. 1994. Fire history database of the western United States. Final report. Interagency agreement: U.S. Environmental Protection Agency DW12934530; U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service PNW-93-0300; University of Washington 61-2239. Seattle, WA: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Pacific Northwest Research Station; University of Washington, College of Forest Resources. 28 p. [+ Appendices]. Unpublished report on file with: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station, Fire Sciences Laboratory, Missoula, MT. [27979]
39. Keeley, Jon E. 1981. Reproductive cycles and FIRE REGIMES. In: Mooney, H. A.; Bonnicksen, T. M.; Christensen, N. L.; [and others], technical coordinators. FIRE REGIMES and ecosystem properties: Proceedings of the conference; 1978 December 11-15; Honolulu, HI. Gen. Tech. Rep. WO-26. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service: 231-277. [4395]
50. Paysen, Timothy E.; Ansley, R. James; Brown, James K.; [and others]. 2000. Fire in western shrubland, woodland, and grassland ecosystems. In: Brown, James K.; Smith, Jane Kapler, eds. Wildland fire in ecosystems: Effects of fire on flora. Gen. Tech. Rep. RMRS-GTR-42-volume 2. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 121-159. [36978]
59. Seklecki, Mariette T.; Grissino-Mayer, Henri D.; Swetnam, Thomas W. 1996. Fire history and the possible role of Apache-set fires in the Chiricahua Mountains of southeastern Arizona. In: Ffolliott, Peter F.; DeBano, Leonard F.; Baker, Malchus, B., Jr.; [and others], tech. coords. Effects of fire on Madrean Province ecosystems: a symposium proceedings; 1996 March 11-15; Tucson, AZ. Gen. Tech. Rep. RM-GTR-289. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Forest and Range Experiment Station: 238-246. [28082]

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Successional Status

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the term: succession

Flaxleaf plainsmustard is favored on open-canopy sites, such as burns [23,25], that are in early succession [25,51,72]. It is nonmycorrhizal; therefore, flaxleaf plainsmustard can colonize sterile sites or sites undergoing primary succession. It colonized a sterile coal mine site near Kemmerer, Wyoming [2].

References:

2. Akinsoji, Aderopo. 1988. Postfire vegetation dynamics in a sagebrush steppe in southeastern Idaho, USA. Vegetatio. 78: 151-155. [6944]
23. Fule, Peter Z.; Springer, Judith D.; Huffman, David W.; Covington, W. Wallace. 2001. Response of a rare endemic, Penstemon clutei, to burning and reduced belowground competition. In: Maschinski, Joyce; Holter, Louella, tech. coords. Southwestern rare and endangered plants: Proceedings of the 3rd conference; 2000 September 25-28; Flagstaff, AZ. Proceedings RMRS-P-23. Fort Collins, CO: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 139-152. [40601]
25. Goodrich, Sherel; Gale, Natalie. 1999. Cheatgrass frequency at two relic sites within the pinyon-juniper belt of Red Canyon. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Stevens, Richard, compilers. Proceedings: ecology and management of pinyon-juniper communities within the Interior West: Sustaining and restoring a diverse ecosystem; 1997 September 15-18; Provo, UT. Proceedings RMRS-P-9. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Rocky Mountain Research Station: 69-71. [30494]
51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
72. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]

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Regeneration Processes

More info for the terms: caudex, root crown, top-kill

Flaxleaf plainsmustard reproduces from seed and by sprouting from the root crown and rhizomes [34,51,72].

Breeding system: Mustards (Brassicaceae) are cross-pollinated. Selfing also occurs [32].

Pollination is insect-mediated [32].

Seed production: No information

Seed dispersal: Flaxleaf plainsmustard seed may disperse only short distances unless moved by machinery or other anthropogenic disturbance. The seed lacks appendages for dispersal and unlike some mustards, the seed coat is nonmucilagious [34]; thus, seeds do not disperse by sticking to fur or feathers.

Seed banking: Many mustard species build a long-term seed bank [3,5,20], and it is likely that flaxleaf plainsmustard does as well. Further research is needed on regeneration strategies of this native mustard. A thorough description of flaxleaf plainsmustard's life history is incomplete without knowledge of seed bank dynamics including spatial variability of the seed bank and temporal variability in the number of seeds in the soil. Knowledge of flaxleaf plainsmustard seed bank dynamics can then be related to disturbances such as fire [53].

Germination: Little is known of germination requirements for flaxleaf plainsmustard, and research is needed in this area. Since flaxleaf plainsmustard lacks a mucilaginous seedcoat [34], its germinating seed is probably more susceptible to desiccation than seed of mustard species with sticky, protective coatings on their seedcoats [74].

Seedling establishment/growth: No information

Asexual regeneration: Flaxleaf plainsmustard sprouts from the caudex and underground rhizomes after top-kill by fire or other disturbance [51,72]. The relative importance of seed vs. sprouting regeneration after fire or other disturbance is unknown, and further research is needed in this area.

References:

5. Archibold, O. W. 1981. Buried viable propagules in native prairie and adjacent agricultural sites in central Saskatchewan. Canadian Journal of Botany. 59: 701-706. [26128]
3. Allen, Edith B.; Allen, Michael F. 1988. Facilitation of succession by the nonmycotrophic colonizer Salsola kali (Chenopodiaceae) on a harsh site: effects of mycorrhizal fungi. American Journal of Botany. 75(2): 257-266. [2921]
20. Everett, Richard L. 1987. Plant response to fire in the pinyon-juniper zone. In: Everett, Richard L., compiler. Proceedings--pinyon-juniper conference; 1986 January 13-16; Reno, NV. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-215. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 152-157. [4755]
32. Hickey, Michael; King, Clive J. 1988. 100 families of flowering plants. 2d ed. New York: Cambridge University Press. 567 p. [44073]
34. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1973. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 730 p. [1168]
51. Pechanec, Joseph F.; Stewart, George; Blaisdell, James P. 1954. Sagebrush burning good and bad. Farmers' Bulletin No. 1948. Washington, DC: U.S. Department of Agriculture. 34 p. [1859]
53. Pyke, David A. 1994. Ecological significance of seed banks with special reference to alien annuals. In: Monsen, Stephen B.; Kitchen, Stanley G., compilers. Proceedings--ecology and management of annual rangelands; 1992 May 18-22; Boise, ID. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-GTR-313. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station: 197-201. [24280]
72. Wright, Henry A.; Neuenschwander, Leon F.; Britton, Carlton M. 1979. The role and use of fire in sagebrush-grass and pinyon-juniper plant communities: A state-of-the-art review. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-58. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Forest and Range Experiment Station. 48 p. [2625]
74. Young, James A.; Evans, Raymond A. 1973. Mucilaginous seed coats. Weed Science. 21(1): 52-54. [5937]

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Growth Form (according to Raunkiær Life-form classification)

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the terms: chamaephyte, geophyte

RAUNKIAER [55] LIFE FORM:
Chamaephyte
Geophyte

References:

55. Raunkiaer, C. 1934. The life forms of plants and statistical plant geography. Oxford: Clarendon Press. 632 p. [2843]

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Life Form

More info for the term: forb

Forb

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Cyclicity

Phenology

USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

More info for the term: phenology

As of this writing (2003), germination, seedling establishment, and seed dispersal phenology are not documented for this species. A few flowering periods are reported:

New Mexico probably May-July [47] Nevada May-June [36] Pacific Northwest May-June [33]
Flaxleaf plainsmustard leaves are generally dead or drying when flowering begins [44].

References:

33. Hitchcock, C. Leo; Cronquist, Arthur. 1964. Vascular plants of the Pacific Northwest. Part 2: Salicaceae to Saxifragaceae. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press. 597 p. [1166]
44. Lackschewitz, Klaus. 1991. Vascular plants of west-central Montana--identification guidebook. Gen. Tech. Rep. INT-227. Ogden, UT: U.S. Department of Agriculture, Forest Service, Intermountain Research Station. 648 p. [13798]
47. Martin, William C.; Hutchins, Charles R. 1981. A flora of New Mexico. Volume 2. Germany: J. Cramer. 2589 p. [37176]
36. Kartesz, John T.; Meacham, Christopher A. 1999. Synthesis of the North American flora (Windows Version 1.0), [CD-ROM]. Available: North Carolina Botanical Garden. In cooperation with the Nature Conservancy, Natural Resources Conservation Service, and U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service [2001, January 16]. [36715]

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Conservation Status

National NatureServe Conservation Status

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: N3 - Vulnerable

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

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Rights Holder:

NatureServe

NatureServe Conservation Status

Rounded Global Status Rank: G5 - Secure

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USDA Forest Service Fire Effects Information Service

Rights Holder:

NatureServe

Management

Management considerations

More info for the term: cover

Little is known of the ecology of flaxleaf plainsmustard and other native,
perennial mustards. A suite of ecological relationships including species' life
history, successional role, fire effects, animal use for food and cover, and
impacts of introduced plant species that may
fill similar niches, require further research before current and historic roles
of perennial native mustards can be understood and applied to management issues.

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