Balsamorhiza sagittata

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This species can be found in the following regions of the western United States (according to the Bureau of Land Management classification of Physiographic Regions of the western United States):

BLM PHYSIOGRAPHIC REGIONS [10]:

2 Cascade Mountains

4 Sierra Mountains

5 Columbia Plateau

6 Upper Basin and Range

8 Northern Rocky Mountains

9 Middle Rocky Mountains

10 Wyoming Basin

11 Southern Rocky Mountains

12 Colorado Plateau

15 Black Hills Uplift

16 Upper Missouri Basin and Broken Lands

CACOIDMTNVNDORSDUTWAWYABBCSK

Arrowleaf balsamroot is found from the Sierra Nevada of California northward along the east side of the Cascade Range into British Columbia and eastward to Saskatchewan, North Dakota, and Colorado.

Balsamorhiza sagittata (Pursh) Nutt.:
Canada (North America)
United States (North America)

Note: This information is based on publications available through Tropicos and may not represent the entire distribution. Tropicos does not categorize distributions as native or non-native.

Canada

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

United States

Origin: Unknown/Undetermined

Regularity: Regularly occurring

Currently: Unknown/Undetermined

Confidence: Confident

More info for the terms: achene, caudex, cool-season, forb

Arrowleaf balsamroot is a cool-season [113], large, long-lived, native, perennial forb 1 to 2 feet (0.3-0.6 m) in height [93]. Its fruit is a 4-angled, thickened, smooth, hairless achene [93,108,113]. Basal leaves are cordate to sagittate in outline with entire margins and wooly pubescence. They arise from a branched, underground caudex to form dense rosettes. Flowerheads are sunflower-like with strap-shaped ray flowers 1 to 2 inches (2.5-5 cm) long and tubular disc flowers [113]. Flowers are mostly solitary on long peduncles and the cauline leaves are mostly lanceolate, alternate, and much smaller than the basal leaves [83].

Roots: Arrowleaf balsamroot has a taproot that sometimes reaches a diameter of 4 inches (10 cm) and an extreme depth of 8.8 feet (2.7 m). Laterals seldom come off in the 1st 6 inches (15 cm) of soil. Below this depth numerous strong laterals occur, sometimes an inch (2.5 cm) or more in diameter. These laterals often run horizontally for 2 to 3 feet (0.6-1 m) before turning downward and may reach a depth of 5 feet (1.5 m). The taproot sometimes splits into nearly equal parts at a depth of about 3 feet (1 m). The tip of the taproot is often dead and if alive, is not very branched. The older part of the root is covered with a deeply furrowed bark. These furrows can be one-half inch (13 mm) deep [116].

Plants (15–)20–40(–65) cm. Basal leaves: blades ± silvery to white or gray-green, rounded-deltate or deltate to triangular-deltate, 5–25 × 3–15 cm, bases ± cordate, margins entire, apices acute to attenuate, faces sericeous, tomentose, tomentulose, or velutinous (at least abaxially, usually gland-dotted as well), sometimes glabrescent. Heads usually borne singly, sometimes 2–3+. Involucres hemispheric to turbinate, 12–25 mm diam. Outer phyllaries lanceolate to oblance-olate or linear, (15–)20–25(–30+) mm, equaling or surpassing inner, apices acute to acuminate. Ray laminae 20–40 mm. 2n = 38.

Buphthalmum sagittatum Pursh, Fl. Amer. Sept. 2: 564. 1813; Balsamorhiza helianthoides (Nuttall) Nuttall; Espeletia helianthoides Nuttall; E. sagittata (Pursh) Nuttall

Arrowleaf balsamroot is adapted to plains, valleys, foothills, and low mountain ranges. It occurs on open slopes and ridges throughout the sagebrush (Artemisia spp.), oak (Quercus spp.) brush, ponderosa pine, and higher habitat types. It is found on well-drained soils in open, fairly dry situations, including south-facing slopes [93].

Precipitation: Arrowleaf balsamroot commonly occurs in various sagebrush habitats (see Habitat Types And Plant Communities). The following table shows precipitation ranges required for arrowleaf balsamroot to occur in big sagebrush habitats [107]:

Basin big sagebrush annual precipitation Mountain big sagebrush annual precipitation 9 to 13 inches 13+ inches 12 to 17 inches 17+ inches no yes yes yes

However, Stanton [93] states arrowleaf balsamroot is often important on harsh sagebrush sites in Idaho that receive at least 9 inches (225 mm) precipitation, and Stevens [95] states arrowleaf balsamroot is adapted to basin big sagebrush sites in the 9-to 13-inch (225-330 mm) precipitation range in the Intermountain Range.

Arrowleaf balsamroot is strongly drought tolerant [113].

Soils: Arrowleaf balsamroot thrives in well-drained silty and loamy soils of the Palouse prairies and adjacent sagebrush-grass and open juniper and ponderosa pine zones of the northern Intermountain region. It is tolerant of moderately alkaline to weakly acidic and also weakly saline soils. It is intolerant of shallow water tables but is tolerant of briefly saturated soil conditions on imperfectly drained sites [113].

Elevation: Arrowleaf balsamroot occurs naturally between about 1,000 to 9,000 feet (305-2,743 m) [113]. Some elevations for individual states are:

Colorado 6,000 to 9,000 feet (1,829-2,743 m) [33]
Montana 3,500 to 7,000 feet (1,067-2,134 m) [54]
California 4,593 to 5,249 feet (1,400-1,600 m) [35]

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This species is known to occur in association with the following Rangeland Cover Types (as classified by the Society for Range Management, SRM):

More info for the term: cover

SRM (RANGELAND) COVER TYPES [90]:

101 Bluebunch wheatgrass

102 Idaho fescue

103 Green fescue

104 Antelope bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

105 Antelope bitterbrush-Idaho fescue

107 Western juniper/big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass

108 Alpine Idaho fescue

109 Ponderosa pine shrubland

110 Ponderosa pine-grassland

210 Bitterbrush

212 Blackbush

216 Montane meadows

301 Bluebunch wheatgrass-blue grama

302 Bluebunch wheatgrass-Sandberg bluegrass

303 Bluebunch wheatgrass-western wheatgrass

304 Idaho fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass

305 Idaho fescue-Richardson needlegrass

306 Idaho fescue-slender wheatgrass

307 Idaho fescue-threadleaf sedge

308 Idaho fescue-tufted hairgrass

309 Idaho fescue-western wheatgrass

310 Needle-and-thread-blue grama

311 Rough fescue-bluebunch wheatgrass

312 Rough fescue-Idaho fescue

314 Big sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

315 Big sagebrush-Idaho fescue

316 Big sagebrush-rough fescue

317 Bitterbrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

318 Bitterbrush-Idaho fescue

319 Bitterbrush-rough fescue

320 Black sagebrush-bluebunch wheatgrass

321 Black sagebrush-Idaho fescue

322 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany-bluebunch wheatgrass

324 Threetip sagebrush-Idaho fescue

401 Basin big sagebrush

402 Mountain big sagebrush

403 Wyoming big sagebrush

404 Threetip sagebrush

405 Black sagebrush

406 Low sagebrush

407 Stiff sagebrush

408 Other sagebrush types

409 Tall forb

410 Alpine rangeland

411 Aspen woodland

412 Juniper-pinyon woodland

413 Gambel oak

415 Curlleaf mountain-mahogany

416 True mountain-mahogany

418 Bigtooth maple

606 Wheatgrass-bluestem-needlegrass

607 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

608 Wheatgrass-grama-needlegrass

612 Sagebrush-grass

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This species is known to occur in association with the following cover types (as classified by the Society of American Foresters):

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SAF COVER TYPES [26]:

206 Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir

209 Bristlecone pine

210 Interior Douglas-fir

211 White fir

212 Western larch

216 Blue spruce

217 Aspen

218 Lodgepole pine

219 Limber pine

220 Rocky Mountain juniper

222 Black cottonwood-willow

235 Cottonwood-willow

237 Interior ponderosa pine

238 Western juniper

239 Pinyon-juniper

247 Jeffrey pine

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This species is known to occur in association with the following plant community types (as classified by Küchler 1964):

More info for the term: shrub

KUCHLER [50] PLANT ASSOCIATIONS:

K005 Mixed conifer forest

K008 Lodgepole pine-subalpine forest

K010 Ponderosa shrub forest

K011 Western ponderosa forest

K012 Douglas-fir forest

K013 Cedar-hemlock-pine forest

K014 Grand fir-Douglas-fir forest

K015 Western spruce-fir forest

K016 Eastern ponderosa forest

K017 Black Hills pine forest

K018 Pine-Douglas-fir forest

K020 Spruce-fir-Douglas-fir forest

K021 Southwestern spruce-fir forest

K022 Great Basin pine forest

K023 Juniper-pinyon woodland

K024 Juniper steppe woodland

K032 Transition between K031 and K037

K037 Mountain-mahogany-oak scrub

K038 Great Basin sagebrush

K039 Blackbrush

K040 Saltbush-greasewood

K046 Desert: vegetation largely lacking

K050 Fescue-wheatgrass

K051 Wheatgrass-bluegrass

K052 Alpine meadows and barren

K055 Sagebrush steppe

K056 Wheatgrass-needlegrass shrubsteppe

K063 Foothills prairie

K064 Grama-needlegrass-wheatgrass

K066 Wheatgrass-needlegrass

K098 Northern floodplain forest

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This species is known to occur in the following ecosystem types (as named by the U.S. Forest Service in their Forest and Range Ecosystem [FRES] Type classification):

ECOSYSTEMS [28]:

FRES17 Elm-ash-cottonwood

FRES20 Douglas-fir

FRES21 Ponderosa pine

FRES23 Fir-spruce

FRES25 Larch&nbsp

FRES26 Lodgepole pine

FRES29 Sagebrush

FRES30 Desert shrub

FRES34 Chaparral-mountain shrub

FRES35 Pinyon-juniper

FRES36 Mountain grasslands

FRES37 Mountain meadows

FRES38 Plains grasslands

FRES44 Alpine

More info for the term: forb

Arrowleaf balsamroot is a common component in sagebrush communities. Wright and others [124] state where arrowleaf balsamroot and lupine (Lupinus spp.) make up a large component of herbaceous yield in threetip sagebrush communities, fall burning would help maintain the forb component. They classify arrowleaf balsamroot as a cold desert forb and list it as "undamaged" by fall burning. In a Nevada sagebrush-bunchgrass community, where moisture was "adequate" arrowleaf balsamroot responded " well" to spring burning. Where the grass and forb understory was depleted, cheatgrass became the dominant grass [48].

More info for the terms: cover, density, forbs, frequency, prescribed burn, prescribed fire, restoration, wildfire, xeric

Young and Evans [126] studied population dynamics of herbaceous plants after
a 1972 wildfire in a big sagebrush/Thurber needlegrass (Achnatherum
thurberianum) community in Nevada. The site was typical of degraded
rangelands in the Great Basin. They found herbaceous
succession after wildfires was dominated by cheatgrass (Bromus tectorum)
except for
"...robust perennial forbs not preferred by grazing herbivores."
Arrowleaf balsamroot was included in this group. Data are from 100 permanently
marked plots on the Red Rock burn. The following table depicts density
(number/m2) and frequency of arrowleaf balsamroot on the plots following the
fire:

Time after burning1 month1 year2 years3 years4 yearsDensity0.100.100.170.200.31Frequency--11489

Kuntz [53] cataloged initial plant response to spring burning in a
mountain big sagebrush/Idaho fescue habitat type in the Salmon National Forest
in Idaho. For a "cool" intensity burn (characterized by incomplete
removal of mountain big sagebrush), cover of arrowleaf balsamroot increased for
the 1st two postburn years and returned to preburn levels the 3rd postburn year.
For a "hot" intensity burn (characterized by complete removal of
mountain big sagebrush), cover of arrowleaf balsamroot increased for 3 postburn
years.

In south-central Oregon, Powell [76] assigns a rating of
"high" to arrowleaf balsamroot's postfire response. This means a
population of arrowleaf balsamroot will regain its preburn frequency or cover in
5 years or less. He states plant densities are often greater than preburn
densities by the 2nd growing season after burning. After trees re-establish and
shading increases, arrowleaf balsamroot populations can
be expected to decline dramatically.

Merrill and others [67] compared burned and unburned plots after a
1973 wildfire on White Cap Creek in northern Idaho. The site was a xeric
ponderosa pine stand and adjacent montane grassland. They found arrowleaf balsamroot
production was consistently higher each year for 3 years after the burn, reaching a peak in
postfire year 2. Differences, however, were never great enough to be significant.
Yields of arrowleaf balsamroot for 4 years postburn averaged 33 g/m2 on burned
plots and 21 g/m2 on unburned plots 

Mean percent canopy coverage and frequency of arrowleaf balsamroot in 20
microplots on 7 burned and 7 unburned plots in 1974 (1st postburn growing
season) and 1976 were:

1974
1975
1976
1977treatment meansburnedunburnedburnedunburnedburnedunburnedburnedunburnedburnedunburned30293022411429213321

Heights of arrowleaf
balsamroot on 7 burned plots averaged 114 to 122 % on unburned plots.

The authors measured mean concentration of 9 minerals in arrowleaf
balsamroot from burned and unburned sites for 3 postfire years. Their findings
for burned sites relative to unburned sites for 3 postfire years are presented
below. The symbol "+" indicates the concentration is more than
unburned vegetation, while the symbol "-"indicates a lesser
concentration. The only significant difference between burned and unburned
vegetation was in 1974 for manganese.

Mineral197419751976nitrogen (%)--+potassium (%)+++calcium (%)+--phosphorus (%)-+-magnesium(%)---manganese (ppm)+ +-copper (ppm)-++zinc (ppm)++-sodium (ppm)+-+
On ponderosa pine and Douglas-fir communities in the Blue Mountains of northeastern Oregon,
arrowleaf balsamroot cover and frequency were higher on sites that had been
thinned and burned under prescription than on control sites or sites that were
only thinned or burned. Arrowleaf balsamroot was determined to be an indicator species for thinned sites (P≤0.05). Posttreatment measures were taken 6 years after thinning
and 4 years after prescribed burning. For further information on the effect of
thinning and prescribed burn treatments to arrowleaf balsamroot and 48 other species, see the Research Project Summary of Youngblood and others' [129] study.
For further information on arrowleaf balsamroot response to fire, see Fire Case Studies.
The following Research Project Summaries also provide information on prescribed fire and postfire responses of plant species, including
arrowleaf balsamroot, that was not available when this species review was originally written.

• Changes in grassland vegetation following fire in northern Idaho
• 
  Vegetation response to restoration treatments in ponderosa pine-Douglas-fir forests of western Montana

More info for the terms: caudex, climax, fire management, forb, forbs, shrubs

Arrowleaf balsamroot sprouts from a caudex and does not spread by rootstocks. Any increase in number of plants must await seed production, so arrowleaf balsamroot increases slowly after burning [124]. In a 1978 study, Wright [123] lists arrowleaf balsamroot as a member of the forb community in climax ponderosa pine community and states these forbs would harmed by fire for no more than a year.

The Fire Management Plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument describes arrowleaf balsamroot's reproduction after fire as "infrequent" but states biomass production is enhanced. This increased biomass will remain high until grasses or shrubs dominate the site [9].

Bunting [16] assigns the following responses of arrowleaf balsamroot to varying fire intervals relative to current conditions in western juniper communities in the Owyee Mountains of southwestern Idaho:

Average fire recurrence in years

<10

25

50

100

increase in abundance increase in abundance no change in abundance decrease in abundance

More info for the terms: flame length, prescribed burn, resistance

Powell [76], in discussing fire effects on plants in the Malheur National Forest in the Blue Mountains of Oregon, gives arrowleaf balsamroot a "high" fire resistance rating. This rating is interpreted as a greater than 65% chance that 50% of the plants will survive or immediately re-establish after passage of a fire with an average flame length of 12 inches (30 cm).

In a prescribed burn near Elko, Nevada, in August of 1980, a single arrowleaf balsamroot plant was tagged prior to burning. It was killed by the fire. Surface temperatures at the plant reached 1200 to 1500 degrees Fahrenheit (649-816 oC). Soil temperatures reached peaks of 250 and 175 degrees Fahrenheit (121 and 79 oC) at 0.4 and 0.8 inches (1 and 2 cm) below the surface respectively. The authors felt this severe fire was the result of the burnout of adjacent woody sagebrush fuels [79].

More info for the terms: fire management, forbs

Arrowleaf balsamroot is top-killed by fire. Pechanec and others [75] classified susceptibility of forbs to fire by 3 damage classifications at Dubois, Idaho. Arrowleaf balsamroot was classified as the most fire resistant, "undamaged." In Wyoming, arrowleaf balsamroot is classified as a desirable range plant that is "slightly damaged" by fire [92]. In a discussion of prescribed burning to control sagebrush and juniper in Utah, Ralphs and others [78] also classify arrowleaf balsamroot as a desirable range plant that is "slightly damaged" by fire. The Fire Management Plan for Craters of the Moon National Monument in Idaho describes arrowleaf balsamroot as "very fire resistant" [9].

More info for the terms: caudex, density, fire interval, fire management, fire-free interval, frequency, mean fire interval, shrub, tree

Fire adaptations: Arrowleaf balsamroot regenerates from its caudex following fire [122]. Volland and Dell [111] describe the fire regeneration "mode" of arrowleaf balsamroot as windborne seed and rapid regrowth from a caudex.

Smith and Fischer's literature review [91] describes the fire survival "strategy" of arrowleaf balsamroot as regrowth from a surviving thick caudex and state it will survive even the most severe fire and increase in frequency and density after fire.

In a 1984 fire management action plan for Zion National Park in Utah, Mitchell [69] describes arrowleaf balsamroot fire survival strategy as "sprouting from a thick caudex."

FIRE REGIMES: Smith and Fischer [91] place arrowleaf balsamroot within a fire group in northern Idaho that consists of warm, dry Douglas-fir and ponderosa pine habitat types. Before the 20th century, these sites were characterized by frequent underburns that eliminated most tree regeneration, thinned young stands, and perpetuated open stands dominated mainly by ponderosa pine. Studies in the South Fork Clearwater River report fire return intervals for stands in this fire group ranging from 3 to 39 years with a mean fire interval of 15 years [8]. In the River of No Return Area of Idaho, Barrett [7] provides the following information on FIRE REGIMES for stands in this fire group:

Location Fire interval range (years) Mean fire interval (years) Standard deviation high elevation, 6,000 feet  8-51 22 4 low elevation, < 5,000 feet 3-30 15 2 Salmon River corridor 2-39 14 12

In eastern Idaho and western Wyoming, arrowleaf balsamroot is assigned to fire groups consisting of limber Pine (P. flexilis) habitat types, and habitat types supporting cool, dry Douglas-fir forests [14]. Arno and Gruell [3] reported a mean fire interval of 74 years for a southwestern Montana limber pine/bluebunch wheatgrass habitat type at a grassland ecotone. Keown [44] reported a fire-free interval of about 100 years for a similar Montana limber pine stand with a grass and shrub understory. Cool, dry Douglas-fir forests in Jackson Hole, Wyoming, probably experienced fires about every 50 to 100 years [60]. Douglas-fir adjacent to sagebrush steppe vegetation in both Jackson Hole and the valleys of northern Yellowstone National Park appear to have shorter fire-free intervals [14]. Houston [38] reported intervals of 20 to 25 years in cool, dry Douglas-fir in the Lamar, Gardner, and Yellowstone valleys over the past 300 to 400 years.

In Utah, Bradley and others [15] assign arrowleaf balsamroot to the fire group containing pinyon-juniper woodlands and montane maple-oak woodlands. On 4 study sites in southwestern Idaho, Burkhardt and Tisdale [17] found fire-free intervals to be 23, 18, 8 and 11 years. McKell [64] states composition of burned oak stands in Utah was found to resemble unburned stands within 20 years following fire.

FIRE REGIMES where arrowleaf balsamroot is an important member of the community are summarized below.

Community or Ecosystem Dominant Species Fire Return Interval Range (years) sagebrush steppe Artemisia tridentata/Pseudoroegneria spicata 20-70 [73] basin big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. tridentata 12-43 [86] mountain big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. vaseyana 15-40 [3,17,68] Wyoming big sagebrush Artemisia tridentata var. wyomingensis 10-70 (40**) [110,128] plains grasslands Bouteloua spp. blue grama-needle-and-thread grass-western wheatgrass Bouteloua gracilis-Hesperostipa comata-Pascopyrum smithii cheatgrass Bromus tectorum 73] curlleaf mountain-mahogany* Cercocarpus ledifolius 13-1000 [5,88] mountain-mahogany-Gambel oak scrub Cercocarpus ledifolius-Quercus gambelii blackbrush Coleogyne ramosissima western juniper Juniperus occidentalis 20-70  Rocky Mountain juniper Juniperus scopulorum western larch Larix occidentalis 25-100 [2] wheatgrass plains grasslands Pascopyrum smithii 73] Engelmann spruce-subalpine fir Picea engelmannii-Abies lasiocarpa 35 to > 200  blue spruce*  Picea pungens 35-200 [2] pinyon-juniper Pinus-Juniperus spp. 73] Rocky Mountain lodgepole pine* Pinus contorta var. latifolia 25-300+ [1,2,84] Colorado pinyon Pinus edulis 10-400+ [27,29,43,73] Jeffrey pine Pinus jeffreyi 5-30  interior ponderosa pine* Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum 2-30 [2,6,57] quaking aspen (west of the Great Plains) Populus tremuloides 7-120 [2,32,66] mountain grasslands Pseudoroegneria spicata 3-40 (10**) [1,2] Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir* Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca 25-100 [2,3,4] elm-ash-cottonwood Ulmus-Fraxinus-Populus spp. 23,112] *fire return interval varies widely; trends in variation are noted in the species summary
**mean

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More info for the terms: climax, succession

Climax: Arrowleaf balsamroot is listed as part of the vegetation in a climax interior ponderosa pine (Pinus ponderosa var. scopulorum) community on the east slope of the Cascade Mountains, Blue Mountains and Northern Rocky Mountains [123]. An edaphic climax type in Colorado of Wyoming big sagebrush/bluebunch wheatgrass includes arrowleaf balsamroot [102].

Mid-seral: In a study of grasslands of lower British Columbia, Tisdale [105] describes arrowleaf balsamroot as "found more commonly" in the mid-seral stage of needlegrass (Stipa spp.)-bluegrass as grasslands previously heavily grazed progressed to the climax stage of bluebunch wheatgrass-rough fescue (F. altaica).

Steele and Geier-Hayes [94] list arrowleaf balsamroot as an "important" species in the herb layer of Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii var. glauca) habitat types in Idaho. The following table gives arrowleaf balsamroot's successional role in these habitat type-phases in Idaho:

Area

Rocky Mountain Douglas-fir habitat type-phase Successional role West-central Idaho elk sedge-(Carex geyeri) ponderosa pine MS pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens)-ponderosa pine ms Oregon-
grape (Mahonia repens) ms white spirea (Spiraea betulifolia) - ponderosa pine MS common snowberry- ponderosa pine (MS) ninebark (Physocarpus malvaceus)- ponderosa pine (MS) Rocky Mountain maple (Acer glabrum)-Rocky Mountain maple MS East-central Idaho elk sedge-elk sedge ms pinegrass-pinegrass ms white spirea-pinegrass (ms) common snowberry- common snowberry (ms) ninebark- Douglas-fir ms Rocky Mountain maple- mountain snowberry ms MS = mid-seral; () = occurs in only part of the habitat; upper case = major species occurrence; lower case = minor species occurrence

Koniak [49] studied succession after fire in pinyon-juniper stands in the Great Basin. She found arrowleaf balsamroot present in various seral stages. Numbers in the following table represent percent of sites where arrowleaf balsamroot occurred (total number of stands measured not given):

Occurrence in various successional states

early early mid-stage mid-stage late mid-stage late 21 29 20 11 19

Early seral: Weaver [115], in an early (1914) study of plant succession in eastern Washington and adjacent Idaho, lists arrowleaf balsamroot as an "invader" in the transition from the bunchgrass-rimrock vegetation type to "prairie" vegetation at the top of canyons. For more information on early seral response of arrowleaf balsamroot see Plant Response To Fire.

More info for the term: cover

Breeding system: No information

Pollination: No information

Seed production: The seed crop is usually good [93] and large quantities of seed can be produced if developing seedheads are not attacked by insects and are protected from grazing [100].

Seed dispersal: Arrowleaf balsamroot seeds are dispersed by wind [94] and animals [76].

Seed banking: Arrowleaf balsamroot seeds are not stored in the soil [94]. A 1996 study by Kitchen and Monsen [46], using arrowleaf balsamroot seeds collected in Idaho and Utah, found no evidence that arrowleaf balsamroot maintains a persistent seedbank.

Germination: Several studies have examined germination of arrowleaf balsamroot. Young and Evans [127] found germination without stratification was very low and erratic. A 12-week period of stratification was required for maximum germination. They chose 8 weeks at 41 degrees Fahrenheit (5o C) as the pretreatment used for development of temperatures for a profile for arrowleaf balsamroot germination. Germination after this stratification period was only 50% of that obtained after 12 weeks of stratification, but was chosen because some seeds germinated during stratification. Optimum temperatures for germination were essentially optimum temperatures for stratification. 

Kitchen and Monsen [46] also conducted germination experiments on arrowleaf balsamroot and found for the few seeds that germinated without prechilling, germination was delayed for 21 to 28 days after imbibition and germinants "frequently" exhibited abnormal growth. They found no significant differences among germination percentages for nonstratified seeds. In contrast, 11 temperature regimes were optima for germination of stratified seeds. Warmest of these regimes was a constant 50 degrees Fahrenheit (10o C) and coldest was 32/41 degrees Fahrenheit (0/5o C). A temperature of 95 degrees Fahrenheit (35o C) reduced germination and a warm-period temperature of 104 degrees Fahrenheit (40o C) prevented germination [46].

The 3-month stratification requirement of arrowleaf balsamroot is long for many rangeland seedbeds. The only environment on sagebrush rangelands that might have a satisfactory stratification of arrowleaf balsamroot seeds is at the snow-litter-soil interface in sites with continuous snow cover for at least 3 months. This may explain the occurrence of dense communities of arrowleaf balsamroot on north-facing slopes where snowdrifts accumulate [46].

Stevens and others [99] tested germination of arrowleaf balsamroot seeds after storage in an open, unheated, and uncooled warehouse in Utah. While arrowleaf balsamroot does not persist in the soil seedbank [46,94], it apparently can be stored for up to 10 years and still be viable. Their results are:

Source

Years of storage

2 3 4 5 7 10 15

Percent germination

Paradise Valley, NV 40 42 -- 37 20 1 0

Arrowleaf balsamroot has relatively large seeds, 1,850 to 3,000 per ounce (65-105/gram) [46]. The Davenport Seed Company [77] states there are 58,000 seeds per pound (127,600/kg).

Steele and Geier-Hayes [94], in a summary of successional studies of the major Douglas-fir habitat types in central Idaho, state arrowleaf balsamroot seeds germinate on bare soil in full sun.

Seedling establishment/growth: Kitchen and Monsen [46] found arrowleaf balsamroot seedlings in an experiment in Idaho and Utah grew slowly with low mortality. Wasser [113] found seedling vigor to be "rather weak" and that stands developed slowly.

Generally, new plants are slow to mature, requiring 3 to 4 years to flower on the best sites, and 7 to 8 years on lower precipitation sites [100].

Asexual regeneration: No information

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More info for the term: hemicryptophyte

RAUNKIAER [80] LIFE FORM:
Hemicryptophyte

More info for the term: forb

Forb

Barcode of Life Data Systems (BOLDS) Stats
Public Records: 1
Specimens with Barcodes: 1
Species With Barcodes: 1

Canada

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

United States

Rounded National Status Rank: NNR - Unranked

Rounded Global Status Rank: G4 - Apparently Secure

Reasons: Widespread, Great Basin to British Columbia, element found in mountainous habitats with open forest or scrub communities.